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A PRACTICAL AKD CRITICAL 



GEAMMAK 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



By NOBLE BUTLER. 







At 




LOUISVILLE, KY.: 

JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY, 

PUBLISHERS. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 

JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. D. C. 



ELECTROTYPED BY ROBERT ROWELL, LOUISVILLE. 



PKEFACE 



A certain class of persons think to show their superiority to the 
common herd by speaking contemptuously of grammar. Like Mrs. 
Squeers, they are thankful that they are "no grammarians;" and if 
want is a good ground for thankfulness, it must be admitted that some 
of them have much to be thankful for. The cant which is fashionable 
among them is sometimes very amusing. Suppose, for instance, that 
one of them should conceive the idea of contending for the correctness 
of "Where is it at?" His argument would probably be in the following 
style: "In fullness of thought the common people show themselves 
superior to the mere grammarian. 'Where is it?' expresses the idea 
to the grammarian's mind, it is true ; but the man of the people feels 
his mind too full to be satisfied with so jejune an expression, and he 
pours out his fullness in 'Where is it atf " 

Or suppose the beauties of you is should strike his fancy. He will 
then discourse in the following strain: "Nothing but the prejudice of 
grammarians has prevented the adoption of you is in stead of the stiff 
and pedantic you are. You being singular when it denotes but one, 
how absurd to have it pretending to be plural! It may be said that 
while you is of the second person is is of the third; but shall we reject 
so euphonious an expression for the sake of grammatical person? To 
call such expressions incorrect English is to assume the point. No one 
says that ella e is bad Italian, and that ella sei is good. Dr. Webster 
has proved that you were should be changed to you was, and to be 
consistent we should change you are to you is. Grammarians of the 
smaller order may contend for you are; but go into the fields and the 
markets, and you will find you is flowing from lips that disdain to be 
locked up by grammatical rules." 

The office of the grammar of a language is to state what the lan- 
guage is. If it does not do so, it is not grammar ; if it does state what 
the language is, he who sneers at it may think that he shows his 
superiority, but he shows nothing but his vanity and presumption. 
He makes himself as ridiculous as did Carlyle's "Sigismund super 
Grarmnaticam" who when an error, he had made in his speech was 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

pointed out to him loftily exclaimed, "Ego sum Rex Romanus, et super 
grammatical I (I am King of the Romans, and above grammar!)" 

Milton's opinion of the true grammarian was somewhat different 
from that held by those Sigismunds who loftily set themselves "above 
grammar." "Whoever in a state," says he, "knows how to form wisely 
the manners of men and to rule them at home and in war by excellent 
institutes, him in the first place, above others, I should esteem worthy 
of all honor; but next to him the man who strives to establish in 
maxims and rules the method and habit of speaking and writing 
derived from a good age of the nation, and, as it were, to fortify the 
same round with a kind of wall, the daring to overleap which a law 
only short of that of Romulus should be used to prevent." 

Every one owes it to the language which contains our noble litera- 
ture to do what he can to keep that language pure. Changes must 
of course take place in every living language. New ideas require new 
words to express them. But words and forms which have been estab- 
lished by the usage of the great writers should be regarded as among 
the elements of the language. Every friend of literature should set 
himself against changes which ignorance and self-conceit strive to 
thrust into the language. " In language and in literature," says Mr. 
Marsh, "nothing can save us from ceaseless revolution but a frequent 
recourse to the primitive authorities and the recognized canons of 
highest perfection." 

In this work, it is believed, the science of grammar is much sim- 
plified. Pronouns are treated as being what they are, simply nouns; 
and they are introduced before the subject of case is mentioned. If it 
were not for pronouns, the distinction of cases, so far as the nominative 
and objective are concerned, would be a useless encumbrance to English 
grammar. 

It seems strange that thinking men should ever have been satisfied 
with the common doctrine concerning "the compound relative what' 1 
and the words compounded of the simple relatives and ever and soever. 
The subject in itself is simple enough, as, it is thought, will be seen by 
those who consult this work. 

The articles, in stead of being made to form a separate part of 
speech, are placed where they belong, among adjectives. 

Attention is invited to the simplicity and thoroughness with which 
every point connected with the verb is treated. The syntax of the 
infinitive is presented in a manner Avhich is believed to be as simple as 
it is new. One who has not had his attention particularly directed to 
the subject would scarcely suspect how common is the occurrence of 
the first and third persons of the imperative, particularly of the third 
person. These forms occur so frequently that they have been given in 



PREFACE. 



the paradigms of the verb. The principles governing the use of shall 
and will, should and would are presented so clearly and illustrated with 
so great a variety of exercises that the subject will be mastered with 
the greatest ease. 

Attention is invited to the manner of treating prepositions, adverbs, 
and conjunctions. 

In the treatment of the Analysis of Sentences all the principles 
are fully presented, with abundant exercises in analysis and synthesis. 
The subject consists of — 

1. Definition of sentence, proposition, subject, predicate. 

2. Subject and predicate as logical or grammatical. 

3. Subject and predicate as simple or compound. 

4. The different kinds of sentences. 

5. The modifications of the component parts of sentences. 

6. Sentences as composed of one or of more than one proposition. 
This is all. The subject is beautifully simple when freed from 

impertinent technicalities. Simplicity is greatly promoted by repre- 
senting the grammatical predicate as always a verb alone, the verb be 
taking its place with other verbs. {See Note £T, p. 310.) The analysis 
by diagrams shows at once to the eye the relation of the different parts 
of the sentence to each other, including the relative rank of the different 
propositions.* 

Under the heads of " Elliptical Propositions" and "Substitutes 
and Transformations" many difficulties are explained, and in these 
and other places are mentioned constructions which seem not to have 
been mentioned in any other grammar. 

An attempt has been made to bring order into the chaos of punc- 
tuation and to establish a system on sound general principles. 



* Mr. W. A. Boles suggests the following method of presenting syntax and 
etymology together. The abbreviations will be readily understood : 



SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS. 



Sentence. 



fG. S. 

• S '{m.{ 

.p.j 



SYNTAX. 

angels 



White-winged 



I n. e. p. 
adj. q. 



meet 
child 
the 
on vestibule 
the 
of life. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

). n. IV. 
. . II. 



v. i. t. a. ind. pres. s. 3. V. 

n. c. s. c. 3. o. IX. 

adj. I. . . . II. 

prep. XIV. n. c. s. n. 3. o. X. 

adj. I. . . . II. 

prep. XIV. n. c. s. n. 3. o. X. 



Numerals refer to rules of Butler's Practical Grammar. Write modifying words 
under the words they modify. Write words understood as parentheses. 



6 PREFACE. 

The subject of prosody is presented free from unnecessary techni- 
calities, so that its principles may, it is believed,, be mastered in a few 
hours. 

This work is intended to be eminently practical. Every principle 
is abundantly illustrated with exercises. The subjects are so presented 
in the exercises that the pupil can not fail to have the principles fixed 
in his mind. See, for instance, the exercises on shall and will. The 
work contains critical discussions of various grammatical points. These 
discussions are intended for the teacher, whose use of them with his 
pupils must be governed by his opinion of their capacity. The " Ques- 
tions for Review" present all the points to which it is thought necessary 
to call the attention of pupils in general. It is recommended that those 
who are just entering upon the study begin with Etymology. 



CONTENTS 



English Grammar, divisions 11 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letter 11 

Organs of Speech 11 

Classes of Sounds 12 

Vocals 13 

Non-vocals . 13 

Subvocals 13 

By letters 14 

Corresponding non-vocals and sub- 
vocals 15 

Equivalents 15 

Classes of Letters 17 

"Words and Syllables 18 

Rules for Spelling 20 

ORTHOEPY. 
From what to be learned 23 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Introductory Exercises 24 

Parts of Speech 27 

Nouns 28 

Classes 29 

Pronouns , 32 

Classes .' 33 

Personal 33 

Compound personal 34 

Relative 34 

Compound relative 37 

Interrogative 38 

Indefinite 38 

As and than 40 

Number 41 

Formation of the plural 41 

"The Miss Mortons " 46 

Words with foreign plurals 46 

Gender 50 

Editor or editress? 53 



Nouns — continued. 

Case 54 

Person 58 

Declension 59 

My and mine, etc 60 

Parsing 60 

Adjectives 64 

Articles 66 

Distinction between an and a 67 

Articles and numbers 68 

Comparison of 69 

Verbs 73 

Classes 74 

Voice 77 

Moods 79 

The gerund, or participial noun 81 

Tenses 84 

Fuller view of. 85 

Signs of. 86 

Confounding time and action 88 

Conditions or suppositions 88 

Tenses in the different moods 90 

Forms of participles 91 

"The house is built" 92 

Number and person 94 

First and third persons of impera- 
tive not '" abridgments " 95 

Conjugation 95 

To love 96 

To be 98 

"We be"... 99 

"If I was" and "if I were" 99 

Passive voice 100 

"He is gone," etc 101 

Progressive form 102 

"I am loving," etc 102 

" The house is building" 102,232 

Negative form 103 

Interrogative form 104 

Interrogative negative form 105 

(7) 



8 



CONTENTS. 



Verbs — continued. 

Irregular verbs 105 

Remarks on bear and drink 109, 110 

Errors in the use of. 110 

Lay and lie, set and sit Ill 

Conjugation of to take 113 

Defective verbs 113 

Beware, methinks 114 

Auxiliary verbs 114 

Shall and will ....115 

Cautions concerning will 119. 120 

Should and would 123 

Cautions concerning would 12G 

Prepositions 132 

What may be the object of a prep- 
osition 134 

List 134 

Remarks on aboard, according to 135 

Concerning, touching, regarding, re- 
specting 130 

Bating, excepting, saving, during, pend- 
ing, notwithstanding 137 

Save, but 138 

Except 139 

Adverbs 142 

Classes 144 

" I saw John only" 145 

The, nay, no, not 146 

Yes, to and fro, by the bye, ago, at 

last, etc 147 

The adverb than 148 

Conjunctive adverbs 148 

Some writers not able to see the 

distinction 149 

Comparison of. 150 

Conjunctions 151 

Remarks on both, either, neither, that, 

after, etc 152 

Save, except, notwithstanding, if, etc 153 

Though, for as much as, yet, also, etc 154 

Interjections 156 

" O for a lodge," etc 156 

Same Word in Different Classes 157 

SYNTAX. 

Proposition, Subject, Predicate 158 

Subject and predicate, logical and 

grammatical 160 

Remarks on there, that, for 161, 162 

Subject and predicate, simple and 

compound 163 



Proposition, Subject, etc. — continued. 

Sentences, declarative, etc 164 

Modifications 165 

Sentences, simple, complex, and 

compound 169 

Noun-propositions 170 

Adjective-propositions 171 

"She died the hour that I was 

born" 171 

" It is to this place that the gulls 

resort" ....171 

" He marched with what forces 

he had" 172 

Adjunct-propositions 172 

Adverb-propositions 173 

" That is so disagreeable that," 

etc 173 

Elliptical propositions, explana- 
tion of many difficult con- 
structions... 173 

Substitutes and transformations.. ..176 
" The difficulties were so great 

as to deter him" 176 

" Be it ever so humble," etc 176 

" The man is said to be honest "..177 
"He has more than atoned," 

etc 177 

"Leaped like the roe," etc 177 

Exercises in analysis 177-187 

Rules of Syntax 188-251 

Subject of verb 188 

"All perished but he". 188 

Predicate-nominative 191 

" Whom he was," " The dog it was 

that died " 191 

" It is me " 192 

Nouns used independently or abso- 
lutely 194 

Remarks on excepting, regarding, 

granted," etc 194, 195 

Possessive case 197 

" Every body else's business," 198 

"Johnson's and Richardson's Dic- 
tionaries" 198 

The 's not always personal 199 

" I am opposed to John writing "..199 

Object of transitive verb 202 

" He learned me grammar" 202 

" The house caught on fire " 203 

Graduate, locate, leave, etc 203 

Two objectives . 203 



CONTENTS. 



Rules of Syntax — continued. 

Object of preposition 205 

After, before, ere, etc., with noun- 
propositions 205 

" Each man walks with his head 
in a cloud of poisonous flies" 206 

Despite, instead, because, etc 206 

Preposition omitted 207 

"As long as it freezes nights'" 208 

"Where is my book at?" 208 

Apposition 210 

Predicate-nominative not in appo- 
sition 210 

" The men went each his own way ' ' 211 
Common nouns and proper nouns 

in apposition 211 

Syntax of adjectives 213 

Quality assumed and quality asserted.213 

"Granting this to be true" 213 

Position of adjective 213 

" The two first " or "the first two "? 214 
" I have no brothers but myself" 215 

" The strangest of the two" 216 

Each, every, either, neither 216 

Each other applied either to two or 

to more 217 

" The old and young gentleman "..217 

" All of his men " 218 

" The north and south poles " 218 

"The Hon. John Smith" 218 

"Some fifty years ago" 218 

Adjective or adverb? 219 

Verb and subject 222 

" Twice one is two " 223 

Each, every, no 223 

" Thine is the kingdom," etc 223 

" Either thou or I am concerned " 224 

Verb with collective nouns 224 

" The public is invited " 225 

"As follows," etc 225 

" There is no man but knows " 225 

Subject improperly omitted 225 

"One of the greatest houses that 

ever was," etc 226 

The Infinitive 228 

Noun-infinitive 228 

"I saw him fall" 228 

Adjunct-infinitive 229 

Verb-infinitive 230 

" Bills are requested to be paid in 
advance" 230 



Rules of Syntax — continued. 

To of the infinitive originally a 

preposition 230 

Expressions in which to is still a 

preposition 231 

The simple form used 231 

" They are not willing to do so 

much as listen" 231 

Confusion with respect to sub- 
ject of infinitive 231 

Improper use of one form of 

infinitive for the other 232 

" Please excuse me," " I will try 

and see him" 232 

" He commenced to speak" 232 

Preposition and object 235 

Antecedent term omitted 236 

Two prepositions with same object. 236 

Proper prepositions 236 

Au fait of. 237 

He lives in or atf 238 

" I am obliged to you " 238 

A sale by auction or atf 239 

" He sowed the field to wheat "...239 
" The house ism Walnut Street" 240 

" Over his signature" 240 

Syntax of adverbs 242 

" Owen Glendower's absence 

thence" 242 

Modified word omitted 242 

Adjectives improperly used for 

adverbs 242 

Adverbs improperly used for ad- 
jectives 242 

" The above statement," etc 242 

" Resolve whether you will or no " 242 
" A person I never saw but twice " 242 
Affirming equality and denying 

equality 243 

Vulgar errors, "most suffocated," 

etc 243 

Position of adverbs and adjuncts.. 243 

Syntax of conjunctions 245 

Connected parts corresponding 245 

Or or nor? 246 

" This always has been, and it al- 
ways will be admired" 246 

Nothing conjunctions but conjunc- 
tions . 246 

The huddling system 246 

Than, that, etc 247 



10 



CONTENTS. 



Rules of Syntax — continued. 

Syntax of interjections 248 

Miscellaneous remarks 248 

" Jane and myself went" 248 

" The boy that studies " and " The 

boy who studies" 248 

That and who or which 248 

Thou and you 248 

Ambiguity from position of rela- 
tive proposition 249 

"He believed that there was but 

one god".. 249 

"I wish I knew what the law 

really was" .249 

Intermingling present and past 

tenses 249 

Past tense for might, etc., with 

infinitive 249 

" To-morrow is Wednesday " 249 

" A proper selection of faulty com- 
position is more instructive 
than any rules and examples 

[are?] 249 

Had have been 249 

"If he have the money" 250 

" He looked as if he were honest " 250 
" He inquired if he were on the 

right way " 250 

" I wish I was where Anna lies "...250 

Punctuation 255 

Points not to denote pauses 255 

The period 255 

The comma 257 

The semicolon 265 

The colon 268 

The interrogation-point 270 

The exclamation-point . 270 



Punctuation — continued. 

The dash 272 

The curves, or marks of parenthesis. 274 

The hyphen 275 

The quotation-points 276 

Other marks 277 

Capital letters 278 

PROSODY. 

Kinds of Feet 281 

Rhyme 282 

Kinds of Verse 283 

Iambic 283 

Trochaic 285 

Anapestic 286 

Dactylic... ..286 

Poetical Pauses 287 

Exercises for Scanning and Parsing..287 

APPENDIX^ 

Office of grammar 297 

Pronouns 297 

Relative what 298 

Compound relatives 299 

Common gender 300 

Possessive case of pronouns 300 

Articles 302 

Degrees of comparison 303 

Definitions of the verb 303 

Active-transitive and active-intransi- 
tive 304 

Subjunctive and potential 304 

Time and action 307 

Second person singular 308 

Grammatical predicate 310 

" Is+being built " 312 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is an explanation of the principles of 
the English language. These principles relate, 

1. To the written characters of the language; 

2. To its pronunciation ; 

3. To the classification of its words; 

4. To the construction of its sentences; 

5. To its versification. 

The first division is called Orthography; the second Orthoepy; 
the third Etymology; the fourth Syntax; and the fifth Prosody. 

Remark. — These principles are derived from the usage of the best writers 
and speakers. This is the final standard in all cases. The grammarian merely 
generalizes the facts of the language. ( See Note A in Appendix.) 



I ORTHOGRAPHY, 

Orthography treats of letters and their combination in 
syllables and words. 

A Letter is a character used to represent an elementary 
sound made by the organs of speech. 

The Organs of Speech consist of the vocal tube and the 
articulating organs. 

The Vocal Tube consists of the trachea, or windpipe, and 
the mouth; the whole forming a tube similar, in some respects, 
to the pipe of a church-organ. The lungs may be compared 
to the bellows of an organ. 

(11) 



12 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

The Articulating Organs are the tongue, the palate, 
the teeth, and the lips. 

Remarks. — 1. The vocal tube may be varied in its length and other dimen- 
sions, so as to produce different sounds. 

2. To illustrate this we may make in succession the sounds represented by 

a, o, oo. After we have made the sound of a we perceive that, in order to make 
the sound of o, we lengthen the vocal tube by protruding the lips ; and that we 
protrude the lips still further in making the sound of oo. The aperture is also 
contracted as the lips are protruded. 

CLASSES OF SOUNDS. 
I. With Respect to Articulation. 

Unarticulated Sounds are sounds which pass uninter- 
rupted through the vocal tube ; as the sounds represented 
by a, e, o. 

Articulated Sounds are sounds which are interrupted 
by the articulating organs ; as the sounds represented by 

b, p, fc, t. 

Remarks. — 1. The stream of sound passing through the vocal tube may be 
interrupted, 

(a) By pressing the tongue against the palate, as in making the sound rep- 
resented by k. 

(b) By closing the lips, as in making the sound represented by p. 

(c) By pressing the tongue against the teeth, as in the sound represented by t. 

(d) By forcing the sound through the nose. This is done while we interrupt 
the passage of sound through the mouth either by closing the lips, as in the 
sound represented by m ; or by pressing the tongue against the upper jaw, as in 
the sound represented by n ; or by pressing the tongue against the palate, as in 
the sound represented by ng* 

2. Sounds of the first kind are called palatals; of the second kind dentals, 
from the Latin dens, a tooth ; of the third kind labials, from the Latin labium, a 
lip ; of the fourth kind nasals, from the Latin nasus, a nose. 

3. The word articulate is derived from the Latin articulus, a little joint. 
Speech is broken into joints, as it were, by the articulating organs. 

4. Most of the articulating organs are concerned in all sounds ; but in forming 
unarticulated sounds they are concerned merely as parts of the vocal tube. 

II. With Respect to Voice. 

Sounds may be either with voice or without voice. 

Thus the sound of v is made with voice, and that of / without 
voice. 



passages 



*A person with a cold is said to "speak through his nose," when in fact the 
ages of the nose are so closed that he can not"" speak through his nose." 



CLASSES OF SOUNDS. 13 

Remarks. — 1. The difference between these two kinds of sound may be per- 
ceived oy pronouncing the syllables ef and ev, and prolonging the sound of the 
latter part of each of these syllables, thus making the sounds represented by 
/ and v. It will be observed that we make the sound of / by forcing a current 
of air between the lower lip and the upper front teeth, and the sound of v by 
adding to the sound of / voice from the throat. 

2. Voice is produced by an apparatus, called the glottis, in the upper part 
of the windpipe. This apparatus may be made to vibrate, like the reeds of a 
musical instrument, and thus to produce voice as distinguished from aspiration, 
the latter being the term applied to such sounds as that of /. The vibration 
maybe felt by placing the finger on the projection in the throat called "Adam's- 
apple." 

Sounds are divided into vocals, non-vocals, and subvocals. 

Vocals are sounds made by the uninterrupted passage 
of voice through the vocal tube; as the sounds represented 
by a, e. 

Non-vocals are sounds made by the passage of air inter- 
rupted by the articulating organs ; as the sounds represented 
by b, k. 

Subyocals are sounds made by the passage of voice 
interrupted by the articulating organs ; as the sounds repre- 
sented by b, d, r. 

The letter h represents merelv a forcible emission of the 
breath before a vocal sound ; as in hay, he, ho. 

Remarks.— 1. The true force of h may be learned by sounding a, ha; o, ho ; 
oo, hoo. In sounding ha, ho, hoo, the organs take the position which they have 
in sounding a, o, oo, and the breath is forcibly emitted before the sounds. * 

2. The word vocal is derived from the Latin vocalis,, of the voice ; subvocal 
from vocal and sub, under, implying a lower degree of vocal ity. 

3. Each of the non- vocals has its corresponding subvocal ; as, p, b ; t, d ; 
k, g hard ; s, z ; f, v. 

-Do not those who are said to "omit the sound of h where it ought to be 
uttered and utter it where it ought to be omitted" really employ a slight 
aspiration, or half h, in both cases ? Thus, for old hall they do not really say 
hold all, but kold hall, the half h added and the half h taken awa} r seeming to 
others a full h. The statement that a large number of people perversely take 
away a sound from all the words to which it belongs and insert it where it 
does not belong would seem to be absurd on the face of it. The barber in 
Punch expresses his opinion that the cholera is in the hair. "Then," observes 
the customer, "you ought to be very careful what brushes you use." " O, sir," 
replies the barber, laughing, "I didn't mean the air of the ed, but the hair of 
the hatmosphere" From hair and head the barber took away half of the h, pro- 
nouncing the words with only half as much aspiration as the customer used ; 
air and atmosphere he pronounced with the same half h which to the customer 
seemed a whole h. 



14 



ORTHOGKAPHY. 



LETTERS. 

There are in the English language about forty sounds. 

To represent these sounds there are only twenty-six let- 
ters ; namely, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, I, m, n, o, p, q, r, 
s, t, %i, v, w, x, y, z. 

Some of these letters represent each several sounds; in 
some instances two or more represent the same sound; and 
in others two letters represent one simple sound. 

Thus a has different sounds in pate, pal, par, pass, pall; c in cat, 
k in kit, and q in quit represent the same sound; and the combina- 
tions sh and ng represent each one simple sound. 

The first of the following tables contains the sounds of the English 
language, as represented by the letters. The second table shows the 
correspondence of the non-vocals and the subvocals. The pupil may 
learn to distinguish the sound represented by a particular letter by 
first pronouncing the whole word in which the letter appears and 
then separating in succession the other sounds from that which he is 
examining. Thus, pate, ate, a. 



I. Table of Sounds. 

VOCALS. 

1. a in pate. 5. a in par. 9. e in her. 

2. a in pare. 6. a in pall. 10. i . in pin. 

3. a in pat. 7. e in pete. 11. o in note. 

4. a in pass. 8. e in pet. 12. o in not. 

COMPOUND VOCALS. 

17. i in pine. 18. u in tune. 19. oi in voice. 

NON-VOCALS. 

21. h in hair. 23. t in tie. 25. k in hale. 

22. p in pie. 24. f in fine. 26. s in said. 

COMPOUND NON-VOCAL. 

29. ch in chew. 

SUBVOCALS. 

30. b in by. 33. g in gale. 37. 1 in lay. 

31. d in die. 34. z in zed. 38. m in may. 

32. v in vine. 35. zh in vision. 39. n in nay. 

36. th in thy. 40. ng in ring. 

COMPOUND SUBVOCAL. 

44. j in jew. 



13. o in move. 

14. u in tun. 

15. u in full. 

16. u in urge. 

20. ou in house. 

27. sh in wish. 

28. th in thin. 



41. r in ray. 

42. w in way. 

43. y in yea. 



LETTERS. 



15 



II. Table of Corresponding Non-vocals and Subvocals. 



NON-VOCALS. 

p in pw. 

t in tie. 

f in fine 

k in kale. 



SUBVOCALS. 

b in by. 
d in die. 
v in vine. 
g in gale. 



NON-VOCALS. 



SUBVOCALS. 



s in said. z in zed. 

sh in mission. zh in vision. 

th in thigh. th in thy. 

ch in chew. j in jew. 



Remarks. — 1. The simple sounds represented each by two letters are sh in 
mission, (pronounced mishun,) zh in vision, (pronounced vizhun,) th in thigh, th in 
thy, and ng in ring. 

2. That these are simple sounds may be readily perceived. In pronouncing 
she we observe but one sound before that of e; in pronouncing thin and this we 
observe but one sound in each instance before that of i; in pronouncing ing we 
have but one sound in addition to that of i. 

3. The combination th represents two sounds ; one with voice, the other 
without voice. 

4. We have in written language no such combination as zh; but this com- 
bination is employed in the table to represent a sound which has the same 
relation to sh that z has to s. 

5. Ch has the sound of tsh, and j that of dzh. 

6. The sound of i is composed of that of a in fare and e in me. The sound 
of u in use (pronounced yoose) is equivalent to the sounds of y and of o in move, 
y having the sound of short i rapidly pronounced. 

7. Oi represents the union of the sounds of o in nor and e in me; ou the 
union of the sounds of a in far and o in move. 

8. The combination wh is sometimes considered as representing a simple 
sound; but each letter represents its own sound, h being sounded before w. 
Thus whip is pronounced hwip. . 

9. C, q, and x are redundant letters. C before e, i, and y has the sound of s, 
as in cent ; in other cases that of k as in cat. Q is equivalent to k, and is always 
followed by u, qu being equivalent to kw ; thus quit is pronounced kwit. X is a 
double letter, equivalent in most cases to ks; thus six is pronounced siks. Before 
an accented syllable beginning with a vowel it is equivalent to gz ; thus example 
is pronounced egzample, not eksample. In words beginning with x this letter is 
equivalent to z ; thus Xerxes is Zerkses. 

10. G before e, i, and y has generally the sound of j. Get, give, buggy, etc., 
are exceptions. 

Equivalents. 

Sounds are frequently represented by other letters than 
those appropriately belonging to them. 

Thus the sound of a is represented by ey in prey, pronounced 
pra; the sound of y is represented by i in the word union, pro- 
nounced une-yun ; the sound of sh is represented by ti, ci, si, ce in 
the words nation, spacious, mission, ocean, pronounced na-shun, spa- 
shus. mish-un, o-shan. 

A letter or a combination of letters representing a sound 
properly belonging to another letter is called the equivalent 



16 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



of that letter. When the equivalent consists of more than 
one letter the elementary sound is generally represented by 
one letter, while the other is silent. 

Thus in wait the letter a represents the sound, and i is silent; 
in veil, e represents the sound of a, and i is silent. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Show what letters in the following words represent the sound of a in ate: 

Fate, wait, great, lay, weight, veil, gauge. 

2. In the following words name the equivalents of the different letters repre- 
senting the elementary sounds : 



A in all — 'Paul, law, broad, nor, 

sought. 
A in pare — there, their, heir, 

swear, wear. 
E in me — peel, see, sea, key, seize, 

grief, pique. 
E in met — head, heifer, says, said, 

bwry, any, again. 
E in her — fir, myrrh. 
I in pine — die, my, huy, aisle, 

height, gwide, hymen. 
I in pin — sieve, been, bwsy, gmld, 

women. 
O in no — floor, roar, roe, row, 

dough, sew, heau. 
O in not — what, squat, yacht. 
in move — coo, tour, through, 

you, shoe. 
U in use — hue, hew, beawty, view, 

adieu, juice, deuce. 
U in us — rough, does, son, flood. 



wool, book, wolf, wood, 



U in pull- 

wowld. 

U in urge — worm, jowrney. 

OU in pound — now, crowd. 

01 in oil — joy, alloy, destroy. 

K — cat, locA, houyA, acAe, auiit, 
boa? (boks). 

T — faceo 7 , flxea 7 , chasea 7 . 

F — lauyA, phiz, phlegm. 

S — cent, ice, cit, cynic. 

SET — ocean, .sure, sugar, partial, 
social, potion, pension, ma- 
chine. 

J — yem, yin, yipsy, soldier. 

G — ea?ist (egzist), e^act (egzact). 

V — of, Stephen, nephew. 

Z — as, is, sufiice, beaua?, xehec, ribs. 

ZH — azure, measure, ambrosial, 
crozier, evasion, miraye, rouye. 

W — one, once, qwit, language. 

Y — minion, alien, hallelujah, filial. 



3. In which of the following words has c the sound of k (c hard), and in 
which that of s (c soft) ? 

Cat, cot, cut, cede, cite, cycle, clear, cry, coy, coil, count, city, 

century, cylinder, public. 

4. In which of the following words has g the sound of j (g soft) ? 
Ginger, gap, general, gull, got, gush, gentle, gyration, gymnastic, 

glade, grind, ghost, georgics, guilt, gown, genius, gin, gorge. 



LETTERS. 1? 

Classes of Letters. 
Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 
A Vowel is a letter representing an unartiadated sound. 
A Consonant is a letter representing an articulated sound. 

Remarks.— 1. The common statement that "a consonant is a sound inca- 
pable of perfect utterance without the aid of a vowel " is not correct, as may be 
seen by sounding /, v, s, z, I, r, m, n, and some other consonants, which are as 
capable of "perfect utterance" without the aid of a vowel as with it. 

2. A vowel may form a syllable of itself; as in a-men, o-ver. Generally a 
consonant does not form a syllable, but is sounded in connection with a vowel. 
The word consonant signifies sounding with; that is, sounding with a vowel. 

But the consonants / and n may form syllables in pronunciation ; as in heaven 
(hevn), drivel (drivl). Such syllables, however, have a vowel written. 

A, e, and o are always vowels ; i and u almost always. 

£, c, d, /, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, y are 
consonants. 

When w has the vowel-sound of u it is a vowel, as in 
new (neu). 

When y has the vowel-sound of >i it is a vowel, as in 
boy (boi). 

In other cases w and y are consonants, as in wet, yet 

When i has the consonant-sound of y it is a consonant, as 
in alien (ale-yen). 

When u has the consonant-sound of iv it is a consonant, 
as in quit (kwit). 

Remark. — It is rapid pronunciation that has in some cases changed i and u 
to consonants. Thus alien, originally a word of three syllables (al i en), came to 
be pronounced so rapidly that the i was joined to the following syllable with the 
sound of y. Kuit (kooit) rapidly pronounced becomes kwit (quit). 

Consonants are sometimes divided into semivowels and mutes. 

A Semivowel is a consonant whose sound may be pro- 
longed ; as, 8, /. 

A Mute is a consonant whose sound can not be pro- 
longed ; as, b, t. 

The semivowels are /, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, z, c soft, 
g soft; the mutes 6, p, d, t, k, q, c hard, g hard (as in go). 

L, m, n, r are sometimes called Liquids, because their 
sounds flow readily into union with other sounds, as in 
blame, dray. 

2 



18 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A Diphthong is a union of two vowels in the same syl- 
lable ; as ou in found. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are 
sounded ; as oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong is one in which the vowels are 
not both sounded ; as ea in beat. 

Remark. — In beat there is no vowel-sound but that of e as in me, though e 
has a different sound from that which it would have without the a. 

A Triphthong is a union of three vowels in the same 
syllable ; as eau in beau. 

Remark. — There is no such thing as a proper triphthong, or one in which 
the vowels are all sounded. When buoy is pronounced bwoy, as it is sometimes 
pronounced, u becomes a consonant. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the vowels and the consonants in the following words : 

Sat, den, hit, hunter, grind, loud, consonant, canter, place, shine, 
triangle, river, handsome, complete, settle. 

2. In which of the following words are w and y consonants, and in which 
are they vowels? 

Water, wet, winter, young, yet, yonder, boy, cow, joy, victory, 

sow, sowing, saw, sawing, new, newly, scythe, lyre, lye, eye, dying, 

brow, when, whip, which, enjoying, swine, try, swim, glory, glorying. 

3. Name the diphthongs and triphthongs in the following words, and tell 
which are proper and which improper : 

Loud, sound, toil, joy, meat, people, reap, lieu, view, beauty, 
receive, great, steak, break, gait, vow, vowing, euphony, choice, 
count, court, courage, hoe, how, sow, low. 

WORDS. 

A Word is a syllable or a combination of syllables used 
as the sign of some idea. 

A Syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds uttered 
with a single impulse of the voice. 

Thus in amen, a constitutes one syllable, and men another. 

Remark.— The essential part of most syllables is a vowel-sound. The vowel- 
sound may be uttered by itself, as in a; or it may be joined with articulate, sounds 
uttered with the same impulse of voice, as in men. 



WORDS. 19 

A primitive word is one which is not derived from another 
word in the language ; as, man, holy, love. 

A derivative word is one which is derived from another 
word in the language ; as, manly, holiness, loving. 

A compound word is one which is composed of two or 
more words; as, schoolmaster, laughter-loving. 

A simple word is one which is not compounded ; as, sclwol, 
master. 

Remarks. — 1. Compound words in common use generally have their com- 
ponent parts united together, and are written as single words, as inkstand. 

2. Those which are not so commonly used have a hyphen between the com- 
ponent parts, as cloud-compelling. 

A word of . one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables a dissyllable; of three syllables a trisyllable; 
of four or more syllables a polysyllable. 

Accent is stress of voice on a particular syllable ; as in 
Ju-ly' ', duly. 

In the word July we utter the syllable ly with greater force 
than the syllable ju; and in the word duly we utter the syllable du 
with greater force than the syllable ly. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following words arc monosyllables, which dissyllables, etc.: 
One, six, sixty, happy, unity, school, safety, component, three, man, 

manly, manliness, nevertheless, overthrow, through, magnanimous, 
thrifty, thrift, thriftiness, solid, solidity. 

2. Tell which of the following words are primitive, and which derivative ; 
Knight, knighthood, candle, stick, candlestick, high, highly, 

distress, distressing, happy, happiness, truthful, beautiful, fearless, 
fear, soulless, form, reform, trust, distrust, trustful. 

3. Tell which of the following words are compound, and which simple : 
Air, gun, air-gun, Sunday, wellspring, black-hearted, long-armed, 

armed, high, high-handed, windbound, wine-glass, window, windmill, 
happy. 

4. Tell the place of the accent in each of the following words : 
Summer, August (the month), august (majestic), simple, sincere, 

sober, dissolving, dissolute, dimple, employ, continent, containing. 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

winter, contravene, illuminate, illumination, ornithology, biography, 
autumn, vindicate, wonder, wonderful, persimmon, salamander, absent, 
present, support, inter, enter, society, river, cedar, dissent, disagree, 
dispute, calumny, calumniate. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling is expressing words by the proper arrangement 
of their' letters. 

This art is to be learned principally from dictionaries and spelling- 
books and from observation in reading. Assistance may be derived 
from the following 

GENERAii Rules for Spelling. 

I. Monosyllables which end in /, I, or s preceded by a 
single vowel double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass. 

Exceptions. — Of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, thus, gas, pus. 

II. Words ending in any other consonant than /, I, or 8 
do not double the final letter ; as, war, drag. 

Exceptions. — Add, odd, ebb, inn, purr, butt, buzz, egg. 

III. Monosyllables and w T ords accented on the last syllable 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel 
double that consonant on receiving a termination beginning 
with a vowel. 

Thus, blot, blotting, not bloting; allot, allotting, not alloting; 
drop, dropped, not droped; shut, shutting, not shirting; quit, quitting, 
not quiting. 

Note. — In quit, t is preceded by two vowels, but the u has the consonant 
sound of w. 

Remarks. — 1. There are four conditions to bo regarded in this doubling. 

(1) The word must be a monosyllable or a word accented on the last syllable. 

(2) The word must end in a single consonant. 

(3) The consonant must be preceded by a single vowel. 

(4) The termination must begin with a vowel. 

Thus the word differ does not come under the rule, because it is not a mono- 
syllable nor accented on the last syllable ; consequently we write differing, differed, 
with one r. 

The word defend is accented on the last syllable ; but it docs not come under 
the rule, because it ends with two consonants, n, d; consequently we write 
defending, not defendding. 

The word boil is a monosyllable and the word recoil is accented on the last 
syllable, and each of them ends with a single consonant ; but they do not come 



SPELLING. 21 

under the rule, because the consonant is preceded by a diphthong and not by a 
single vowel; consequently we write boiling, recoiling with one I. 

The word allotment is spelled with one t, because the termination ment does 
not begin with a vowel. 

2. The reason for doubling the consonant is that the short sound of the vowel 
may be retained in the derivative. Thus bloting would be pronounced like bloating, 
with the long sound of o. In such words as differing, defending, boiling, allotment, 
the proper sound is retained without doubling. 

'd. If the derivative removes the accent to another syllable the consonant is 
not doubled. Thus refer is accented on the last sj'llable fer; but in reference the 
accent is removed from fer to another syllable, and the word is written with one r. 

4. In many words ending in I the I is generally doubled, though the accent is 
not on the last syllable, as in traveller, modelling, pencilled. So the derivatives of 
bias, worship, and kidnap double s and p, as in Massing, worshipped, kidnapper. 
But Webster and some others spell such words with the consonant single, as 
traveler, biased, worshiping. 

5. X is not doubled, because it is a double consonant. Thus, vexing, not vexxing. 

IV. Words ending in 11, to avoid trebling a letter, reject 
one I on receiving a termination beginning with I; as, skill, 

skilless; full, fully. 

Remarks. — 1. Words ending in any other double letter retain the letter double 
before these terminations; as, odd, oddly; careless, carelessly. 

2. Most authorities reject one I when full or ness is added; as, skill, skilful; 
chill, chilness. But Webster and others retain 11, and write skillful, dullness. 

V. Final e is omitted before terminations beginning with 
a vowel ; as, save, saving ; force, forcible ; blame, blamable. 

Exceptions. — Words ending in ce or ge retain e before ous and 
able, to preserve the soft sound of c and g\ as, outrage, outrageous ; 
change, changeable ; peace, peaceable. 

Words ending in oe or ee do not drop e; as, hoe, lioeing ; shoe, 
shoeing; agree, agreeing. Except before e, as shoer, seer. 

Dyeing from dye retains e, to distinguish it from dying from die. 
Swingeing from swinge, tingeing from tinge, singeing from singe, retain e, 
to distinguish them from swinging from swing, tinging from ting, and 
singing from sing. Worcester and others, however, drop the e. 

Remark.— Words ending in c insert k before c and i to retain the hard sound 
of c ; as, frolic, frolicking, frolicked. 

VI. Final e is retained before terminations beginning with 
a consonant; as, close, closely; abate, abatement 

Exceptions. — Duly, truly, awful, drop e. Argument, from the 
Latin argumentum, is not an exception. 

When the e is preceded by dg some drop and others retain e; 
as, abridge, abridgment, or abridgement. The e is usually dropped in 
judgment. 



22 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

VII, Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
y into i when a termination is added; as, fly, flies; merry, 
merrier, merriest, merriment 

Exception. — Before a termination beginning with i, y is retained 

that i may not be doubled; as, carry, carrying. 

Remarks.— 1. Words ending in ie, after dropping e before ing, change i into y 
for the same reason; as, die, dying. 

2. Some write dryness, dryly ; slyness, slyly; shyness, shyly. 

3. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel retain the y; as, play, playing; 
valley, valleys. Daily is an exception. 

4. Some write gaily and gaiety; but the regular forms gayly and gayety are 
preferred. 

VIII. Some words ending in II drop one I in composition ; 
as, full, handful, beautiful; all, always. 

Remark. — Some writers improperly drop one I in such words as foretell, 
enroll, recall. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Correct the errors in the following words: 

Mil, mis, gues, wal, tal, gros, til, spel, iff, yess, gass, rapp, whenn, 
gunn, bragg, tarr, sinn, forr, tubb, ad, eb, pur, eg. 

2. Add ed and ing to each of the following words and spell the derivatives : 
Pat, drop, sip, defer, remit, omit, refer, overlap, whip, impel. 

3. Add er and est to each of the following words and spell the derivatives : 
Hot, red, big, mad, sad, wet, fat, fit, glad, dim, dispel, overset. 

4. Correct the errors in the following words : 

Slip, sliped; strip, striped; demur, demuring; annul, annuling; 
flat, flater, flatest; red, reder, redest; allot, alloting; beg, beging, 
begar; drag, draged; pin, pined; tan, taning, taner; equip, equiping; 
boilling, proceedding, distendding, defeatted, bigotted, shippment. 

5. Which of the following words are spelled correctly, and which incorrectly? 
Demurring, siting, whetting, rapping, taping, sinned, thined, 

forgeting, gettest, concuring. 

6. Correct the errors in the following words: 

Drollly, chillly, stifly, peerlesly, carelesly, odly. 

7. Add ed and ing to each of the following words and spell the derivatives : 
Save, hate, complete, love, wipe, spite, despise, prize, trace, wade, 

oblige, like, blame, twine, expire, excite, deceive. 

8. Add er and est to each of the following words and spell the derivatives : 
Wise, ripe, complete, rare, grave, choice, blue, white. 



ORTHOEPY. 23 

9. Correct the errors in the- following words : 

Bevileing, reconcileable, judgeing, slaveish, convinceing, excuseable, 
rideing, blueish, saleable, changable, tracable, mimicing, mimiced, 
trafficing, trafficer, trafficed, physiced, caasless, arrangment. 

Merryer, merryment, dryed defyecl, carryed, varyance, ladyes, 
carriing, driing, defiing, babiish, staiing, dismaied, daies, vallies, 
chimnies, turkies, monies, monied, pullies, monkies. 

Carefull, spoonfull, allmost, altogether, beautifull, cheerfull, 
cupfull, sinfull, allready. 

Note.— The rules for punctuation, for the use of capital letters, etc., will be 
given hereafter. 



II. ORTHOEPY. 

The pronunciation of the language is to be learned from diction- 
aries and the practice of cultivated speakers. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is English grammar? To what do these principles relate? What is 
the first division called ? The second ? The third ? From what are these prin- 
ciples derived? 

What is a letter? Of what do the organs of speech consist? The vocal 
tube ? Which are the articulating organs ? 

What are unarticulated sounds? Articulated sounds? What are vocals? 
Non-vocals? Subvocals ? What does the letter h represent? 

How many sounds in the English language? How many letters? How can 
the twenty-six letters represent so many sounds ? How many sounds does a 
represent as shown in the tables? E ? II O? Ul Name the compound vocals? 
The non-vocals? The compound non-vocal? The subvocals? The compound 
subvocal ? What subvocal corresponds to the non-vocal pi To tl To/? To kl 
To s? To shl To th as in thigh f To eh! What is the equivalent of a letter? 

What is a vowel? A consonant? Which letters are always vowels? Which 
almost always? Name the consonants. When is w a vowel? When is y a vowel ? 
When is t a consonant? When is u a consonant? What is a semivowel? A mute? 
Which letters are semivowels? Which are mutes? Which are liquids? What 
is a diphthong? A proper diphthong? An improper diphthong? A triphthong? 

What is a word ? A syllable ? A primitive word ? A derivative word ? A 
compound word? A simple word ? A monosyllable? A dissyllable? A trisyl- 
lable? A polysyllable? Accent? 

What is spelling? Rule respecting monosyllables ending in /, I, or s? Ex- 
ceptions ? Rule respecting words ending in any other consonant than /, I, or si 
Rule respecting the doubling of the final consonant? Rules respecting words 
ending in 111 Rules respecting final e? Rule respecting yl 

How is pronunciation to be learned ? 



24 ETYMOLOGY. 

III. ETYMOLOGY. 

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 

In connected .discourse we give the name of some person, 
place, or other thing, and then we say something about the 
person, place, or other thing; as, "John plays." 

Here we give the name of a person, and then we tell what 
he does. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell who or what is spoken of in the following exercises, and what is said 
about him, her, or it: 

William plays. Thomas runs. Mary skips. James reads. Anna 
sings. Boys play. Girls sew. Fire burns. Birds sing. Dogs bark. 
Horses neigh. Children play. Clara laughs. Edith coughs. John 
hops. Edward walks. Jonathan rides. 

The word representing what is spoken of is called the 
subject, and the word expressing what is said about that 
which is spoken of is called the predicate. 

The subject and the predicate together form a proposition. 

EXERCISES. 
Name the subjects and predicates in the following exercises : 
John plays. William plays. Thomas runs. Mary skips. James 

reads. Anna sings. Dogs bark. Peter whistles. Horses gallop. 

Theodore shoots. Cows low. Rivers flow. Plants grow. 

The subject is a noun; the predicate is a verb. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the nouns and verbs in the following exercises : 

John plays. "William reads. Birds sing. Thomas walks. Mary 
runs. Winds roar. Rain falls. Cows drink. Crows caw. Grass 
grows. Snow melts. Fire burns. Rats gnaw. Squirrels jump. 

Verbs having the sign to are said to be in the infinitive 

mood; as, to play, to run, to jump, to sing, to dance. 

Verbs not in the infinitive mood are called finite verbs; as, 
plays, rims, jumps, sings, dances. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 25 

A word may be used with the noun to describe or point 
out the object; as, "Good boys study;" "The boy studies." 

Here we use the word good to describe the boys that study, and 
the word the to point out some particular boy. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the words that describe or point out the objects: 

Active boys play. Industrious girls sew. Bad dogs bite. Merry 
boys whistle. The river flows. The tree grows. Strong men plow. 
Loud winds roar. Bad boys quarrel. Old trees fall. Thirsty cows 
drink. 

Those words that describe or point out the objects are 
called adjectives. 

Name the adjectives : EXERCISES. 

Active boys. Industrious girls. Bright days. Dry grass. Sour 
apples. Sweet pears. Ugly birds. That man. Beautiful weather. 
Fine ladies. Red flowers. Wicked women. Useful employments. 
Happy children, Instructive books. Kind teachers. Black cloth. 
Bed feathers. 

Words may be used with verbs to denote manner, time, 
place, and they are said to modify the verbs; as, "William 
plays well? "Joshua often plays;" "Edward plays here" 

EXERCISES. 

Name the words that modify verbs: 

Anna sings sweetly. That river flows gently. Those plants grow 
rapidly. Those boys study diligently. James reads beautifully. The 
girl behaved badly. The day ended happily. Jane acted wisely. 
Mary lives there. 

The modifying words are called adverbs. 

Name the adverbs : EXERCISES. 

That dog barks continually. The rain fell softly. George spoke 
kindly. The wind roared furiously. The lamb bleated piteously. 
That child eats greedily. The man worked faithfully. Timothy 
writes badly. Cora comes early. 

3 



26 ETYMOLOGY. 

A word may be used to show some kind of relation between 
things; as, "The river runs under the bridge;" "He sits on 
a chair." 

Under shows a relation between the bridge and the running-, on 
shows a relation between the chair and the sitting. 

About ; above, across, against, at, before, behind, by, down, from, in, 
into, of, on, over, past, round, till, to, under, up, with, are some of the 
principal words of this class. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the words that show relations: 

The cat runs about the house. Virginia walked across the meadow. 
Moses fell into the pond. Edith walked before Cora. Matilda stepped 
over the brook. The rabbit ran round the house. Jane went with 
Mary. Minnie ran from Alice. Clara ran down the hill. 

Words of this kind are called prepositions. 

Name the prepositions : EXERCISES. 

Thomas walks behind Alfred. Henry went to Memphis. Ada 
walked to New Albany. The girl ran past the house. The boat 
went up the river. Arthur lay on the grass. The squirrel came 
down the tree. Julia looked at the glass. The horse ran against 
the fence. He waited till night. John is sitting under a tree. 
Edward is above Theodore. 

Some words are used to connect words; as, "John and 
James play;" "Mary laughs and sings." 

In the first sentence and connects the two subjects John and 
James ; in the second sentence and connects the two predicates laughs 
and sings. 

Words of this class sometimes connect propositions; as, 
"John plays, and Mary sings ;" "John plays, but Mary sings." 

In the first sentence and connects the two propositions "John 
plays" and "Mary sings;" in the second sentence but connects the 
two propositions. 

And, or, nor, but, yet, if, lest, as, because, for, though, 
are some of the principal words of this class. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 27 

EXERCISES. 
Point out the words that connect words or propositions : 
Mary and Jane walk. Thomas and Theodore study. James or 
Edward went. The boys played, and the girls studied. Henry rides, 
though Ida walks. Harriet waits, because Horace wishes. 

These connecting words are called conjunctions. 

Name the conjunctions : EXERCISES. 

Jane and Irene sang. The birds sang, and the dogs barked. 
The dogs barked because the birds sang. The dogs bark if the 
birds sing. Jonathan and William ran. Joshua ran, but Josiah 
walked. Benjamin rode, though Charles walked. 

Words are sometimes thrown in as mere exclamations; 
as, "Alas! she is gone." 

0, ah, alas, pshaw, tush, ho, huzza, hurrah, bravo, fie, are words 
of this class. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the words of exclamation : 

Hurrah! we have a holiday. Pshaw! Who said so? Ho! come 
here. Alas ! the beautiful city perished. Bravo ! You spoke well. 

These words are called interjections. 

Name the interjections : EXERCISES. 

Fie! John, do not behave so. Huzza! he is coming. We ex- 
pected to see him; but, ah! he never came. Pshaw!' that is nonsense. 
Ho! cowards, are you afraid? 



Etymology treats of the classification and properties of 
words. 

Words are divided into seven classes. 

A Part of Speech is one of the classes into which words 
are divided. 

These parts of speech are called the Noun, Adjective, Verb, 
Preposition, Adverb, Conjunction, and Interjection. 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 



NOUNS. 
A Noun is the name of an object ; as, John, horse, whiteness. 

Remarks. — 1. The word noun is derived from the Latin word nomen, which 
means name. 

2, The mind may consider even nonentity, or the absence of a thing, as a 
positive idea; as, non-existence, naught, nullity, nothing. These words accordingly 
are nouns. 

3. When two or more words are employed to designate one individual they 
are considered as one name ; as, Robinson Crusoe, George Washington. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the nouns among the following words. There are twelve in each 
division : 

John is a boy. James met a beggar. The man and his horse 
are out in the rain. Thomas threw a snowball. James went to 
Cincinnati in a steamboat. 

That tree is high. The cat scratched the dog. The sun gives 
light. The fixed stars are supposed to be suns. Fishes swim in the 
sea. The snail does not move so fast as the eagle or the hawk. 

A big stick. The long rope. Soft, silky hair. Clean hands and 
shining faces. Frosty weather makes red noses. The cat ran off 
with a piece of meat in her mouth. Sharp claws. 

The busy bee gathers honey from flowers. In the spring the 
trees put out leaves. In the winter snow falls and water freezes. 
"Walnuts have hard shells but sweet kernels. 

George Washington was the first president, and was succeeded 
by John Adams. Daniel Boone was one of the first explorers of the 
western country. Napoleon Bonaparte was a great general. The 
name of the writer of this history is Thomas Babington Macaulay. 

Thomas has read the letter. What marks has Mary made? 
An a and a b. What a blot on this page ! Alfred saw Ella, John, 
and Julius. 

Alexander was a great conqueror. Tamerlane built a pyramid 
of skulls. Tarquin was expelled from Home. Mark Antony and 
Cleopatra were defeated. William Tell slew the tyrant. 

Summer has come. The birds sing. The flowers show their heads. 
The grass in the meadow is green. Here is a nest with two eggs. 
The horse is chasing the cow. The hogs are in the field. 

Jane laid the book on the table. There is an inkstand on that 
desk. Has Ellen a good pen ? The apples and peaches are in the 
cellar. Andrew Jackson has some plums. 



NOUNS. 29 

2. Insert nouns in the blanks in the following sentences : 

1. Is ... . hungry ? Are .... and .... here ? What is on that . . . .? 
Whose .... is this ? I see some .... Are these .... ripe ? 

2. That is a tall Who was ? Is this a .... ? swim. 

.... fly neigh. Write with a Come into the .... 

The .... falls. The .... shines by night, and the .by day. The 

.... is a noble animal. There is a .... on your book. 

3. Harriet is a happy .... Have you any . . . . ? Who lives in 
that . . . . ? My books are in that .... Whose . . . . is that lying on 
the . . . . ? How many .... are on that tree ? The horses swam the .... 

3. Make a list of twenty nouns. 

CLASSES OF isrouisrs. 

Nouns are generally divided into two classes, proper and 
common. 

A Proper Noun is the name of an individual object; 
as, John, Vesuvius. 

A Common Noun is a name which may be applied to each 
one of several objects forming a class ; as, boy, mountain. 

Remarks. — 1. The word proper signifies peculiar, one's own. The proper name 
of an individual is a name peculiar to him — his own name ; but a common name is 
one which belongs to him in common with others placed in the same class. 

Thus, several objects resembling each other in certain particulars being 
arranged in a class, the name horse is applied to each of them ; but Bucephalus 
and Rosinante are names proper to individual horses — their own names. 

2. The same proper name may happen to be applied to several individuals ; 
but the name in each instance is intended to designate the object as an individual, 
and not as one belonging to a class. 

Thus several persons may have the name of Mary; but in each instance 
Mary is intended to be the peculiar name of the individual. 

3. When, however, individuals are classed together from the fact of having the 
same name in common the name becomes a common noun ; as, " The twelve 
Ccesars;" "All the Marys in this school are good girls." 

4. A proper name becomes a common noun when the name is employed to 
denote character. Thus we say of a general who is great and good, "He is a 
Washington," or " The Washington of his country." 

5. Proper nouns always begin with capital letters, even when they are used 
as common nouns. 

6. A common noun employed to denote an individual object becomes a 
proper noun; as, "The Falls of Niagara." 

7. Names denoting nationality, names of groups of mountains, islands, etc., 
are regarded as proper nouns; as, "The Romans;" "The Azores;" "The Alps." 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the proper and common nouns in the following : 

There are many beautiful rivers in America. The Ohio is a 
beautiful river. Henry has a dog named Fido. That boy calls his 
cat Tabby. Jane is a good girl. New Orleans is a large city. 
The streets in this town are wide. Broadway is very wide. The 
name of the horse is Lexington. The Andes are lofty mountains. 
The river Thames is full of boats. James, where is the book? 

2. Mention three proper nouns. Three common. 

3. Put a proper noun in each of the following blanks : 

He knows behaves well knows her lesson. I 

saw killed and .... went to town and .... 

are good girls. .... can jump further than is a large 

city is a great country. The is a beautiful river. The 

steamboat arrived at ... . to-day. 

4. Put a common noun in each of the following blanks : 

I saw my to-day are larger than .... These are de- 
licious .... My .... is better than yours. Your .... is worth more 
than my This is a red . ... . She has a new .... He has writ- 
ten a . . . . 

A Collective Noun is the name of a collection or body 

of objects ; as, pair, flock, army, multitude. 

Thus the word army denotes a great many individuals, but they 
are considered as forming a single body. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, or of 
action or being, or of a mode of action or being ; as, white- 
ness, goodness, bravery, haste, confusion, action, existence. 

Quantitive Nouns are the names of things that increase 
or decrease in quantity and not in number, generally de- 
noting substance or material; as, iron, gold, snow, fire, honey, 
wheat, sugar. 

Remarks.— 1. Abstract nouns are so called because they are the names of 
qualities, etc., abstracted, or considered apart, from the objects to which they may 
belong. Thus, honesty is considered as a quality existing without connection with 
any particular individual; as, "Honesty is the best policy." 

2. Abstract nouns are usually classed with common nouns, though not very 
properly. An abstract noun does not denote a class of objects. The word honesty, 
for example, denotes a quality which is found in many individuals, but it is always 
the same quality ; but the word boy when applied to Thomas does not mean the 



NOUNS. 31 

same individual that it does when applied to John. Abstract nouns, when used 
as such, have no plural, and do not admit of a or an or one before them, as every 
noun does which denotes a class. In these respects abstract nouns resemble 
proper nouns. 

3. Such words as music, architecture, poetry, electricity, rheumatism, partake 
of the nature of abstract nouns. 

4. The same word may be either an abstract or a common noun, according 
to the meaning attached to it. Thus when we say, "Virtue is lovely," we use 
the word virtue as the name of a single quality, and it is an abstract noun; but 
when we speak of the virtues of charity, justice, and temperance the word is 
applied to a class, and is a common noun. 

5. Observe that ar word joined to a noun to denote a quality of the object is 
not an abstract noun. Thus when we say, "An honest man," honest is not a noun, 
but an adjective. 

6. Quantitive as well as abstract nouns are usually classed with common 
nouns. But they do not, strictly speaking, denote classes of objects. Like abstract 
nouns they have no plural, and do not admit a or an or one before them. In 
speaking of the objects denoted by them we do not say, "How manyV but 
"How muchV 

7. Quantitive as well as abstract nouns may become common nouns by 
varying the sense. Thus when we say, "Snow is white," we use snow as a 
quantitive noun; but when we say, "A snow fell last night," we mean a body 
of snow, and use the word as a common noun. The words cottons, grasses, etc., 
are often used instead of kinds of grass, etc. These words are in such cases 
used as common nouns. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the collective nouns in the following: 

He saw a flock of pigeons. This is a large herd of cattle. He 
met a great crowd of men. The army consisted of ten thousand 
men. A pair of doves. He goes with the multitude. Gentlemen 
of the jury. 

2. Put a collective noun in each of the following blanks : 

This is a large .... Alexander defeated the .... of Darius. 
The .... agreed in their verdict. A large .... of cattle. A small 
.... of birds. The .... was dismissed. Follow not the .... to 
do evil. 

3. Which of the following words in italics are abstract nouns ? (See Remark 5.) 
He is an honest man. I admire your honesty. He is a good man. 

Who has so much goodness ? A white cow. Its whiteness is remarkable. 
Caesar was a brave man. True bravery is a virtue. John is an idle boy. 
Shake off your idleness. The rapid arrow. The rapidity of an arrow. 
A great man. The greatness of the man. 

4. Name the abstract nouns in the following: 

A virtuous person is loved. Virtue is lovely. It is a dark night. 
He can not see in such darkness. See the beautiful flowers. "Who 
gave beauty to the flowers? This is a false statement. Falsehood 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

is base. A wise man is not proud. "Wisdom drives away pride 
A brilliant color. The brilliancy of the color. 

He is going to destruction. He makes great haste. She is full 
of affection. The boy is fond of study. James is a studious boy. 
She is an affectionate girl. He is a man of great activity. 

He is a wicked man. His wickedness is great. The energetic 
boy shows his energy. The sluggish boy shows his sluggishness. 

5. Name the quantitive nouns in the following: 

Cows eat grass, corn, and hay. This is good wheat. How many 
grains of corn are here? Iron is hard, and lead is soft. Do not 
have too many irons in the fire. "We have had much snow and 
rain. Mercury is very heavy. Cotton and sugar grow there. 



PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a noun of very general signification, de- 
noting relation to the act of speaking or to some other noun; 
as, " I write;" "Thou writest;" "He writes;" "The man 
who writes." 

Here I denotes that the doer of the act is speaking, thou that 
he is spoken to, and he that he is spoken of; ivho has a peculiar 
relation to the noun man. 

Remarks. — 1. Pronouns are so general in their nature that I may be em- 
ployed by any one speaking to denote himself, thou or you may be applied to 
any one spoken to, and he, she, or it may be applied to any object spoken of; 
so that all the objects in the universe may be represented by pronouns. 

2. The common definition of a pronoun, that it is a "word used instead of a 
noun," is not correct. A pronoun is simply a noun, expressing its peculiar 
meaning as completely as a noun of any other class expresses its own meaning. 

3. Pronouns are not used "to avoid the too frequent repetition of nouns." 
There is no noun expressing the same relation that is expressed by I, for 
instance ; and therefore there is no noun for which I may be substituted. It is 
true that other words may be employed to denote the person speaking; as when 
Samuel says, "Speak; for thy servant heareth ;" but here the speaker merely 
uses a form representing him as speaking of himself as if he were speaking of 
some one else, and this is indicated by the form of the verb, heareth. With J a 
different form, hear, would be required. 

"John studies, and he will improve." Here he is employed not because it 
prevents a repetition of the noun John, but because it is the word that expresses 
the intended relation. If we say, "John studies, and John will improve," we use 
a noun instead of a pronoun; but when we say, "John studies, and he will 
improve," the pronoun he takes the place that belongs to it ; he expresses a 
relation to the noun John, while the second John does not. "John studies, and 
John will improve," might be said of two different Johns, which is not the case 
when the appropriate word he is used. 



PRONOUNS. 33 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns may be divided into four classes ; personal, relative, 
interrogative, and indefinite. 

Personal Pronouns. 

A Personal Pronoun is one that always denotes the 
same relation to the act of speaking. 

Thus I never denotes any other than the speaker, thou than the 
object spoken to, and he than the object spoken of. (See Person, p. 58.) 

The personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it, in their 
several cases and numbers. 

Among personal pronouns may be placed one and other, 

which are sometimes used as pronouns, and when so used 

always relate to objects spoken of. 

Thus, "One has to comply with the rules;" "He took the old 
bird and left the young one;" "He admires virtuous statesmen and 
despises corrupt ones;" "He took one man's books and left the 
other's;" "Respect the rights of others." 

Remarks.— 1. In such expressions as "One has to comply with the rules" 
one is probably a, originally one, with person understood — "A person has," etc.* 

2. In the sentence, "He took the old bird and left the young one," bird 
might be used instead of one; but one derives its significance from its relation 
to bird, whereas bird is of itself significant In such expressions as "the forsaken 
one," " the loved ones," one is simply an ordinary noun, just as person is. 

3. Other is properly an adjective; but when the noun to which it refers is 
omitted other takes the termination of the noun. Thus in the sentence, "He 
took one man's books and left the other's [other man's]," other's takes the 
apostrophe and s properly belonging to the noun man. 

Other adjectives are sometimes, though not elegantly, used in the same 
way; as, "Left the earth to be the wicked's den."— Bacon. "The rich man's joys 
increase, the poor's decay."— Goldsmith. 

Formerly other was used even when a plural noun was omitted; as, "Those 
other which I have in hand." — Bacon. 

4. Another is properly two words, an and other, which are without any good 
reason generally written together ; but other has the same construction with an 
as without it; as, "Teach me to feel another's [an other person's] woe." 

5. One another and each other are used in a reciprocal sense; as, "They loved 
one another;" "They hated each other." To avoid prolixity in parsing, one another 

* Most writers represent one in this sense as derived from the French on, which, 
they say, is contracted from homme, man. But it seems more probable that the 
French on itself is derived from un, a or one, and not from homme, man. Thus from 
un homme, one man, homme has been dropped, and un (on), one, retained. Compare 
qudq'un, some one ; chacun, each one ; quelques-uns, some ones ; les uns, the ones. 



34 ETYMOLOGY. 

and each other may be regarded as single words in the preceding examples ; but 
in reality one and each, or the nouns to which they belong, are subjects of verbs 
understood, and other, or the noun to which it belongs, is in the objective after 
the same verbs. Thus, " They loved, each loved the other ;" or with the nouns 
expressed, "They loved, each person loved the other person." "Birds will learn 
one [will learn] of another." — Bacon. In modern usage this would more commonly 
be, "Birds will learn of one another." 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

Compound Personal Pronouns are pronouns formed by- 
adding self (plur. selves) to the simple personal pronouns. 

The compound personal pronouns are myself, ourself our- 
selves; thyself yourself yourselves; himself, herself, itself, themselves. 

These pronouns are used to give emphasis or distinction or to 
show that an effect is reflected, or thrown back, upon its cause; as, 
"He himself did it;" "He hurt himself;" "He is unjust to himself;" 
"He is a curse to himself." 

Relative Pronouns. 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that makes a close 
connection of its proposition with a preceding noun ; as, 
"The boy who studies will learn;" "He spoke to Horace, 
who answered rudely;" "Do not imitate Horace, who answers 
so rudely." 

The proposition who studies is closely connected with hoy, showing 
w T hat kind of boy is meant; in the proposition who answered rudely 
who marks a close connection of the proposition with the noun 
Horace, being equivalent to the conjunction and and he; in the 
proposition who answers so rudely who is equivalent to the conjunc- 
tion because or since and he. 

The preceding noun is called the antecedent, which word 
means going before. 

A proposition containing a relative pronoun is called a 
relative proposition or adjective-proposition. 

The relative pronouns are who {whose, whom), which, that, 
and what. 

Who is applied to persons; as, "This is the man who 
came;" "She who is amiable will be loved." 



PRONOUNS. . 35 

Which is applied to the lower animals and inanimate 
things; as, "This is the ox which destroyed the corn;" 
"This is the tree which bears the best fruit." The ante- 
cedent is sometimes repeated with which ; as, ' ' He has a 
large estate, which estate he inherited from his uncle." This 
makes which in reality an adjective, and in such construc- 
tions it may be parsed simply as a limiting adjective. 

That is applied to any thing to which either who or which 
may be applied; as, "This is the man that came;" "She 
that is amiable will be loved;" "This is the ox that de- 
stroyed the corn;" "This is the tree that bears the best 
fruit." 

What is applied to things, and is used only when the 
antecedent is omitted; as, "He got what he wanted," that 
is, the thing which he wanted. 

That is a relative when who, which, or whom may be sub- 
stituted for it. 

Thus, "He that studies will learn;" "Every thing that has life 
is an animal;" "This is the man that I saw." Who may be substi- 
tuted for that in the first example, which in the second, and whom 
in the third. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the relatives and antecedents in the following sentences : 

A king who is just makes his people happy. This is the man 
whom we met. This is the man that we met. All are pleased with 
children that behave well. This is the tiger that broke from his cage. 
The books which I gave him are for you. The tree which we admired 
has fallen. God, by whose kindness we live, whom we worship, who 
created all things, is eternal. Alexander, who conquered the world, 
was conquered by his passions. He that does not make others happy 
deserves not to be happy. This is the dog that bit the cat that 
caught the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack 
built. He who steals my purse steals trash. The person who does 
no good does harm. 

2. In which of the following sentences is that a relative? 

He that acts wisely deserves praise. It is said that Solomon was 
a wise man. I know that man. They that are whole need not a 
physician, but they that are sick. Bless them that curse you. This 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

is the house that Jack built. That tree is decaying. This is the 
tree that is decaying. He says that that tree is decaying. Give me 
that book. All that sin will suffer. John has the pen that you 
made. This is the lesson that he has studied. Drive that horse away. 
You told me that he was here. That cherry is ripe. This is the 
horse that threw down the gate. That horse threw down the gate. 
I know that he will come. 

ANTECEDENT OMITTED. 

The antecedent is sometimes omitted; as, "Who steals 
my purse steals trash ;" that is, he who, or the person who. 

The relative what is never used except when the ante- 
cedent is omitted ; which being used when the antecedent 
is expressed. 

In other words, if we express the antecedent we use which, and 
if we do not express the antecedent we use what; as, "I saw the 
thing which I wished to see;" "I saw what I wished to see." 

When persons are referred to the same pronoun is employed 
whether the antecedent is expressed or omitted. Compare these 
expressions : 

1. I saw the person whom I wished to see; 

2. I saw ( ) whom I wished to see. 

1. I saw the thing which I wished to see; 

2. I saw ( ) what I wished to see. 

Thus we perceive that the relative what is merely a form used 
instead of which when the antecedent is omitted. (See Note C.) 

EXERCISES. 
1. Name the omitted antecedents: 

I met whom I wished to meet. I met what I wished to meet. 
"Who does no good does harm. Who sees not the sun is blind. 
I love whom he hates. Whom he hates I love. I love what he 
hates. What he hates I love. Who seek truth shall find her. Whom 
he has once seen he knows. What he has once seen he knows. He 
remembers what he learns. What he learns he remembers. The Lord 
chasteneth whom he loveth. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. 
Whom God wishes to destroy he first makes mad. There are who put 
their trust in riches. Who worship God shall find him. Truth offends 
whom falsehood pleases. Whom falsehood pleases truth offends. 
Who but wishes to invert the laws 
Of order sins against the Eternal Cause. 



PRONOUNS. 37 

2. Omit the antecedent in each of the following sentences, and make a change 
in the relative when necessary : 

Model. — "I saw the thing which I wished to see." 
I saw .... what I wished to see. 

The Lord chasteneth the persons whom he loveth. The person 
who steals my purse steals trash. I found the person whom I wished 
to find. I found the thing which I wished to find. I have the thing 
which I desired. Truth offends him whom falsehood pleases. He 
took the things which he could get. Thomas can learn the things 
which he wishes to learn. He is ashamed of that [thing] which he 
has done. That which is just is becoming. That which he learns 
he remembers. 

3. Express the antecedent in each of the following sentences, and make 
the proper changes : 

Model. — "I found .... what I wished to find." 

I found the thing which I wished to find. 

I found what I wished to find. I have what I desired. What 
pleases him pleases me. What he attempts he performs. Mary 
attends to what is said. Ann loves what is true. Did you do what 
you promised to do? 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

Compound Relative Pronouns are pronouns formed by 
annexing ever or soever to the simple relative pronouns. 

These pronouns are used only when the antecedent is omitted 
on account of its being indefinite; and in such cases they are more 
commonly used than the simple pronouns. 

Thus, "Whoever steals my purse steals trash;" "Whoever does 
no good does harm;" "Whatever purifies fortifies the heart." In the 
two first examples the antecedent is person, or something equivalent 
to it; in the last it is thing. [See Note D.) 

When the antecedent is supplied the simple relative takes the 
place of the compound; in other words, ever or soever is dropped; 
as, "The person who steals my purse steals trash;" "He who does 
no good does harm;" "The thing which purifies fortifies the heart." 
But it must be understood that the word ever makes the compound 
more emphatic than the simple relative. 

Remarks.— 1. Formerly so was sometimes used instead of ever or soever; as, 
11 Whoso findeth me findeth life." — English Bible. 

2. What and whatever, like which, are sometimes joined to nouns as limiting 
adjectives : the same nouns are then understood as antecedents. 

Thus, " What books he has are of the best kind." Here what is joined as a 



38 ETYMOLOGY. 

limiting adjective to books, which is the object of the verb has; books understood* 
is the antecedent and the subject of the verb are. Some may prefer to consider 
this a kind of attraction; the relative, instead of standing in its own proposition, 
being attracted to the antecedent and incorporated with it, books which becoming 
what books. 

3. What and -whatever are joined as adjectives to nouns denoting persons 
instead, of who and whoever, which are never used as adjectives. Thus, " What mat. 
but enters dies;" "Heaven bestows its gifts on whatever man will use thei/u" 
The subject of dies in the first example is the antecedent man understood; < ?., 
object of the preposition on in the second is the antecedent man understood. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the omitted antecedent to each of the following relatives : 

Model. — ". . . . Whoever studies will learn." 

(The person) whoever studies will learn. 

"He wants .... whatever he sees." 
He wants (the thing) whatever he sees. 

"Whoever studies will learn. He wants whatever he sees. H& 
gave assistance to whoever had need of it. He took whatever he 
wanted. Whoever sees not the sun is blind. I keep whatever 1 
find. He knows whomsoever he has once seen. He remembers 
whatever he learns. The Lord chasteneth whomsoever he loveth. 
Whomsoever falsehood pleases truth offends. Whoever loves sin 
hates life. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used in asking 

a question; as, "Who was with you?" 

Here who relates to something which the speaker supposes to be 
in the mind of the person spoken to. 

Remark. — Which and what when used in asking questions are generally called 
interrogative pronouns ; but they are simply limiting adjectives belonging to nouns 
expressed or understood. "Which book will you have?" "What man do you see?" 
"Here are two books; which will you have?" that is, which book; "What do you 
see?" that is, what thing. 

Indefinite Pronouns. 

Who is often employed in propositions which form the 
subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive verb or of a 
preposition, and is then called an Indefinite Pronoun; as, 
11 Who built the house is of no importance;" "I know who built 
the house;" "Much depends on who built the house." 

The subject of the verb is in the first example is the proposition 
who built the house; the object of the verb know in the second is the 



PRONOUNS. 39 

whole proposition who built the house; the object of the preposition 
on in the third is the proposition who built the house. 

Who in such sentences is not an interrogative, as no interrogation 
is expressed in the proposition to which it belongs; it is not a 
relative, since no antecedent can be supplied without changing the 
sense. In such propositions who is called an indefinite (not limited) 
pronoun, because it is not limited to an antecedent. 

Such clauses may be included in an interrogation ; as, " Do you 
know who built the house?" But the question here is not made by 
the proposition in which who is contained, but by the other part of 
the sentence, do you know. 

Some have called who in this use of it a relative; but no one 
who understands the nature of a relative will do so. "I know the 
man who is here " is quite a different thing from " I know who is 
here." The officer of the law may say, "I have found who stole 
the money," long before he can say, "I have found the man who 
stole the money. 

The limiting adjectives which and what may be employed in 
propositions of this kind ; as, " I know what architect built the house ;" 
" I know which book you will take." Interrogative adverbs also may 
be thus used; as, "I know where he lives;" "I do not know when 
it was built." 

The object of the verb know in the first example is the propo- 
sition what architect built the house; the object of knoiv in the second' 
example is the proposition where he lives. 

Such propositions are sometimes called indirect questions. They 
do not express questions; but they have always some relation to a 
question. 

If the proposition to which who belongs does not form a direct 
question, and an antecedent can not be supplied without changing 
the sense, it is an indefinite pronoun. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell in which of the following sentences who is a relative, in which an 
interrogative, and in which an indefinite : 

You know not who I am. "Whom do I see ? You know the man 
whom I see. Do you know whom I see? In whose house do you 
live? I do not wish to tell in whose house I live. I saw whom I 
wished to see. I do not ask who you are. By whom was that poem 
written? Do you know by whom that poem was written? Do you 
know the man by whom that poem was written? "Whose horse 
destroyed that tree? I wish to know whose horse destroyed that 
tree. Is that the man whose horse destroyed that tree? 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

2. Tell which of the following sentences contain which and what as relative 
pronouns, which are direct questions, and which are indirect questions : 

What book are you reading? He got what he wished. Tell me 
what book you are reading. This is the book which you lost. Which 
book did you lose? See which book you have lost. Which road 
should we take? Inquire which road we should take. This is the 
road which we should take. In what character was he admitted? 
In what character he was admitted is unknown. This is the character 
in which he was admitted. Which pen do you prefer? I have the 
pen which you prefer. To what place was he going? He was un- 
willing to say to what place he was going. To what place he went 
is not known. 

AS and THAN. 

As after such, same, as many, as much, etc., is by some 
called a relative pronoun ; as, ' ' He reads such books as 
please him;" "He has as many books as he can read;" 
"This is as much lead as I can carry;" "The horse of one 
country is the same animal as the horse of another." 

In the first example, for instance, as is considered a relative 
pronoun referring to books as the antecedent and being the subject 
of the verb please. 

After words in the comparative degree than is used in a 
similar way; as, "He has more books than he can read;" 
"This is more lead than I can carry." 

No one has represented than as a relative pronoun; but it is 
employed so much like as that, if the latter is to be considered a 
relative pronoun, it would seem that the former also should be so 
considered. And if as is a relative pronoun after such, same, as many, 
as much, it is a relative in many other cases; as, "There is as great 
a variety here as can be found in any other country;" "That is 
as beautiful a sight as I have ever seen." 

There are really ellipses in such cases; as, "He reads such books 
as [those are which] please him ;" " He has as many books as [those 
are which] he can read;" "He has more books than [those are 
which] he can read;" "That is as beautiful a sight as [any sight 
is that] I have ever seen." 

But as the supplying of such ellipses would often render parsing 
tedious, these words may be regarded as taking the place of relatives, 
and for the sake of distinction may be called pro-relatives. 



NOUNS. 41 

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 
To nouns belong number, gender, case, and person. 

NUMBER. 

Number is a property of nouns denoting whether one 
object is meant or more than one. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 
The Singular Number denotes one object ; as, chair, tree. 
The Plural Number denotes more than one; as, chairs, frees. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the number of each of the following nouns : 

Book, knife, pen, chairs, table, candle, hats, bonnet, handkerchief, 
feet, hands, eye, ears, children, ox, mice, geese, teeth, oxen, leaves, 
wives, wife, women, men. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

The regular mode of forming the plural is by adding s to 
the singular ; as, book, boohs ; page, pages. 

If the singular ends with a sound which can not unite with 5, es is 
added; as, church, churches; box, boxes; kiss, kisses; brush, brushes. 

Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant generally add es; 
as, negro, negroes; echo, echoes; hero, heroes 

Exception. — Two has twos, because o has the sound of 00. Most persons 
write cantos, juntos, quartos, duodecimos, octavos, solos, tyros, halos, pianos, mementos, 
armadillos, lassos, provisos, etc. It would be better to have uniformity. 

Nouns ending in preceded by a vowel add s only ; as, folio, folios. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into ie and 
add s ; as, lady, ladies ; fly, flies ; soliloquy, soliloquies:-' 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel do not change the y; as, 
day, days; valley, valleys. 

Proper nouns do not change the y when they are used in the 
plural; as, the Henrys. 

Some words of this kind, however, are written with the plural 
regularly formed; as, "The Sicilies; the Ptolemies;" "All our 
Harries." — Pope. 

* U after q is always a consonant., 

4 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

The following nouns change / and fe into ve and add s: leaf, 
calf, self, half, beef, loaf, sheaf, shelf, wolf, thief, elf, wife, knife, life. 
Thus, leaves, calves, knives, etc. Wharf has wharfs or wharves. 

Staff makes staffs or staves. The compounds of staff are regular; 
as, flag-staff, flag-staffs. 

Other nouns in / and fe are regular ; as, fife, fifes ; grief, griefs, 
chief, chiefs; safe, safes; scarf, scarfs. 

The following nouns form the plural more irregularly : 

Child, children; Ox, oxen; Foot, feet; 

Man, men; Louse, lice; Goose, geese; 

Woman, women; Tooth, teeth; Mouse, mice. 

Kine was formerly the plural of cow. The plural termination en 
was common among the Anglo-Saxons ; as in oxen, children, brethren. 
The plural of cow was cowen, which was changed to kine. The plural 
of sow was sowen; this "became swine, which word was formerly used 
in a plural sense only, and denoted females. 

Brother has, besides the regular plural, brethren, which is now 
used only in the solemn style. 

Die when it means a cube used in gaming has dice; when it 
means a stamp it has a regular plural. 

"We use pence when referring merely to the value, and pennies 
when referring to the number of coins. Thus six pence may be all 
in one coin ; but six pennies are six separate coins. 

Pea has peas when reference is made to the number, pease when 
the reference is to the substance; as, "I have six peas-" "He is fond 
of pease." 

To denote the plural of mere characters s preceded by the apos- 
trophe is generally used; as two a 1 s, three 5's. Some place a dash 
between the character and the 5, as two a-s. Another method is to 
repeat the character; as, two aa. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, sivine, 
vermin, hose, gross, grouse, Cyclops. 

Some nouns denoting number, as dozen, score, brace, hundred, 
thousand, million, are the same in the plural as in the singular when 
they have numeral adjectives connected with them, taking the 5 in 
other cases; as, "Two dozen eggs;" "Knock them down by the 
dozens;" "Three score and ten;" "She granted patents by scores;" 
"Two brace of ducks;" "To match in twos, braces, couples;" "A 
hundred yoke of oxen;" "Many hundreds were slain;" "Five hundred 
were slain ;" "Remove some thousands of these boys; ; ' "Ten thousand 
were taken prisoners." 

We say, "A ten-foot pole;" ll Six-ho?se power." 



nouns. 43 

Pair is sometimes used in the same way; as, "A garret up four 
pair of stairs." — Macaulay. "Twenty pair of eyes." — Shakespeare, 
Pair formerly meant any number of equal things; as, "A new pair 
of cards" — Bacon. Some respectable authors still use it in this sense 
when speaking of stairs, though flight is perhaps more common. 

When people signifies a community or body of persons it is a 
collective noun in the singular number, and has sometimes, though 
rarely, a plural; as, "Many peoples and nations and tongues and 
kings." — Revelation x, 11. When it signifies persons it is plural; 
as, "Many people were present." 

Abstract and quantitive nouns, from the nature of their significa- 
tion, have no plural; there are no such words as whitenesses, golds, 
honesties. But when nouns that are usually abstract or quantitive 
are used as common nouns they may of course take the plural form ; 
as, "The various grasses;" "Fine paintings." 

Some nouns are used in the plural number only; as, annals, 
thanks, riches, credentials, tidings, sweepings, trappings, filings, vitals, 
entrails, withers, bowels, assets, clothes, ashes, embers, archives, eaves, 
calends, nones, ides, fireworks, nuptials, suds, orgies, victuals, obsequies, 
measles, mumps, hysterics, rickets. Add such as the following, which 
denote objects consisting of two parts: scissors, shears, nippers, tweezers, 
pincers, pinchers, tongs, snujfers, trowsers, pantaloons. 

Some plural forms have a different meaning from the singular 
forms; as, remains (dead body), manners (behavior), letters (litera- 
ture), morals (character), vespers (evening service), matins (morning 
service), goods (property), arms (weapons), colors (flag), reins (lower 
part of the back), greens (young plants used as food), spectacles (optical 
instruments). 

Corps is written alike in both numbers; but in the singular it is 
pronounced core, and in the plural cores. 

Wages is plural. The singular tcage has been used. 

Odds is both singular and plural; as, "All the odds between them 
has been." — Locke. "On which side the odds lie." — Id. 

Pains (labor) is used as singular and plural, but more commonly 
as singular; as, "No pains is taken." — Pope. "Your pains have sowed 
and tilled." — Dryden. "My pains is sorted." — Shakespeare. "Your 
pains are registered." — Id. 

Means (instrument) is both singular and plural; as, "By this 
means,' 1 "by these means." The singular form mean is sometimes, 
though rarely, used; as, "You may be able by this mean to re- 
view." — Coleridge. "The most effectual mean." — J. Q. Adams. 

Amends is singular and plural. 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

News is singular and plural, but commonly singular; as, "News 
were brought to the queen." — Hume. "Hear these ill news." — Shake- 
speare. "This news distracts me." — Id. "Evil news rides fast." — Milton. 
Alms is plural; it has been used as singular; as, "A just demand 
of an alms." — Swift. 

Summons and gallows are singular and have the plural summonses 
and gallowses. 

Bellows is both singular and plural: as, "Like a bellows.'' 1 — Dryden. 
"A pair of bellows." — Tatler. 

Jeans is a quantitive noun and singular. Jean, which is given 
in dictionaries as singular, is not used. Chints (more correctly chintz) 
is singular. 

Molasses is a quantitive noun and singular, like honey. 
Oats is plural; as, "The oats have eaten the horses." — Shakespeare. 
The singular form oat is seldom used. To denote one we say a grain 
of oats. 

Cattle is always plural. 

Youth and heathen have regular plurals in s; as, "Many unrough 
youths." — Shakespeare. "A hundred youths." — Dryden. "The ancient 
heathens" — Addison. But youth and heathen are often used in a col- 
lective sense; as, "They hate us youth." — Shakespeare. "Why do 
the heathen rage?" — English Bible. 

Cannon and shot, ball, shell (missile weapons) are often used in a 
collective or quantitive sense; as, "Daily cast of brazen cannon." — 
Shakespeare. "Stormed at with shot and shell." — Tennyson. "Experi- 
ments made with one size of ball or shell." — Dr. Hutton. (Gun, rifle, 
musket, mortar, pistol, bullet, bomb are never used in this way.) When 
the idea of individuals prevails these words, except shot, which is 
both singular and plural, have the plural in s; as, " Cannons over- 
charged." — Shakespeare. "His cannons roar." — Dryden. 

Brick, stone, plank are often used in a quantitive sense; as, "This 
bridge will require a great quantity of brick, stone, plank, and lime. 

Fish has the plural fishes ; as, "There are fishes that have wings." — 
Locke. But fish is often used in a collective sense ; as, "As fish are in 
a pond." — Shakespeare. 

Trout, herring, shad, mackerel, turbot, flounder, etc., are often used 
in a plural or collective sense ; as, " The herring approach the 
shores." — Baird. But these words have also the plural in s; as, 
"Myriads of herrings 11 — Baird. "Method of catching herrings? 1 — 
J. G. Wood. u Trouts and salmons swim against the stream." — Bacon, 
"And speckled mack J rels graze the meadows fair." — Gay. "Roaches 
recover strength." — Izaak Walton. "Star-fishes." — Agassiz. 



nouns. 45 

The tendency is to use the names of species like the generic 
word fish, the plural form in s being used when there is an idea of 
individuals, the other form being used when the noun is employed in 
a collective or a quantitive sense. 

Fowl and the names of some species of fowls are used in a similar 
way; as, "We dined on fish and fowl" — Johnson. "Beef compre- 
hends in it the quintessence of partridge and quail and venison and 
pheasant and plum-pudding and custard." — Swift. Here fish, fowl, 
partridge, quail, pheasant, like beef and venison, are used in a quan- 
titive sense. When there is an idea of individuals the plural form 
in s is used; as, "The plovers head the list of waders." — J. G. Wood. 

Such names of sciences as mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, 
mechanics, metaphysics, politics, pneumatics, hydrostatics, though origi- 
nally plural, are now generally construed as singular; as, "Ethics is 
the science of the laws which govern our actions as moral agents." — 
Sir W. Hamilton. "Mathematics has not a foot to stand on which is 
not purely metaphysical." — De Quincey. "It [mechanics] may treat 
of space either by a direct consideration of its properties or by a 
symmetrical representation." — Whewell. 

Horse and foot denoting horse-soldiers and foot-soldiers are plural ; 
as, "The army consisted of five hundred horse and five thousand foot." 

Sail when it denotes a collection of ships is plural; as, "The 
fleet consisted of forty sail." 

Head is sometimes plural; as, "Thirty thousand head of swine." — 
Addison. 

Most compounds form their plural regularly, by adding s to the 
singular; as, handful, handfuls ; cupful, cupfuls ; maid-servant, maid- 
servants; outpouring, outpourings. 

But sometimes the noun of the compound, when it comes first, is 
treated as if not coalescing with the other parts, and the s is added 
to the simple noun, and not to the end of the compound word; as, 
father - in - law, fathers -in- law / court-martial, courts - martial ; knight- 
errant, knights -errant; cousin- ger man, cousins -ger man ; billet-doux, 
billets-doux ; hanger-on, hangers-on; aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp. 

Man-servant changes both the simple words ; as, men-servants. 
So women-servants, Knights Templars. 

Compounds generally retain the irregular plurals of the simple 
words ; as, gentleman, gentlemen ; bondwoman, bondwomen. Musselman, 
German, Turcoman, etc., not being compounds of man, should have 
the regular plural; as, Musselmans, not Musselmen. 

Proper names take the plural form when two or more persons 
of the same name are classed together; as, u The Mortons." So when 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

a title, such as Miss, Mr., etc., is prefixed; as, "The Miss Mortons" 
"The Mr. Mortons," "The Dr. Mortons," "The Mrs. Mortons." 

Remark. — Some writers, not of the highest class, imitate the French con- 
struction, and give the plural form to the title only; as, "-The Misses Morton." 
Some give the plural form to both the name and the title; as, "The Misses 
Mortons.'" No classical author makes use of either of the two latter forms.* 
Some grammarians say that when the title is preceded by a numeral the name 
is pluralized, but that without a numeral the title is pluralized ; as, " The two 
Miss Mortons;" "The Misses Morton." In classical usage there is no foundation 
for this distinction. The following examples show the correct form : " The Miss 
Flam boroughs."— Goldsmith. "The Miss Hornecks."— Washington Irving. "The 
Miss Browns." — Maria Edgeworth. "The Miss Braughtons." — Miss Burney. "The 
Miss Berrys." — Sidney Smith. " The Miss Lucases and the Miss Bennets." — Miss 
Austin. "The Master Crummleses." — Dickens. "The four Miss Rubricks ;" "The 
Miss Bertrams."— Sir Walter Scott. " The six Miss Rowbolds."— Byron. " The Miss 
Gandishes."— Thackeray. "The Miss Burtons."— Bulwer. "The Miss Montgom- 
erys."— 7 1 . Moore. " The Miss Harpers."— Miss Yonge. " If there are Mr. Egertons 
there must be Miss Grahams to suit them." — Miss Sewell. "May there not be Sir 
Isaac Newtons in every science ?"— Dr. Watts. "Duchesses and Lady Marys."— 
Pope. -"The Miss Hills."— T. Campbell. "Were he twenty Sir John Falstaffs."— 

Shakespeare. "The two Mr. Wellers." — Dickens. "Are there any Miss A s at 

Bromburg?" — Hood. "One of the Prince Radziwils." — Hood. "The Honorable 
Miss Holme-Pierreponts." — Miss A. B. Edwards. "The Madame Denises;" "Abbe" 
Mignots."— Carlyle. "The Miss Bailies."—/. O. Lockhart. "The Miss Grants."— 
Prof. Wilson. " The two Miss Towardins." — Chesterfield. " Three Dr. Swifts, two 
Lady Bridgewaters."— Pope. "The Miss Fords."— Miss Kavanagh. "Fifty Mrs. 

Ellisons." — Fielding. " Where we found the two Mrs. W s and the three Miss 

Aliens." — Sir James Mackintosh. "The Miss Halls." — Miss Landor. "One of the 
Miss Germains." — Macaulay. " The Lord Strutts." — Arbuthnot. " If it rained Duke 
Georges nine days." — Carlyle. " The Miss Dodsons." — Author of Adam Bede. " The 
two Miss Pecksniffs being a pretty good match for the three Miss Chuzzlewits." — 
Dickens. In the following passages Mr. Dickens ridicules the affected form which 
some modern writers use: "The Miss Crumptons, or to quote the authority of 
the inscription on the garden-gate of Minerva House, Hammersmith, the Misses 
Crumpton." " I beg to be kindly remembered to Count D'Orsay and to your 
nieces. I was going to say 'the Misses Power,' but it looks so like the blue-board 
at a Ladies' School that I stopped short." 

The name and the title may be considered as forming one compound noun, 
as the two words do in John Smith or the John Smiths. Or the title may some- 
times be considered as an adjective; thus, the word Miss comprehends the ideas 
expressed by the words unmarried and female. 

If a title is used with two or more different names, it is made 
plural; as, "Misses Julia and Maria Morton;" "The Lords Oxford 
and Chesterfield." With the title Messrs., borrowed from the French, 
the name remains singular; as, "The Messrs. Morton." 

Many nouns taken unchanged from foreign languages retain the 
plural form of the languages from which they have been taken. 

*In some of his earlier works Irving employed the French form, as in " Tales 
of a Traveler," published in 1824. In his "Oliver Goldsmith," published in its 
present form in 1849, we find the classical expression "The Miss Hornecks." 



NOUNS, 



47 



Some of these nouns take also the English form of the plural; 
as is shown in the following table: 

l. Singular in US, Plural in I. 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Alumnus, . . 
Calculus, . . 


. . alumni. 
. . calculi. 


Hippopotamus 


f hippopotami, 
I hippopotamuses. 


Colossus, . . . 


f colossi, 
\ colossuses. 


Incubus, . . . 


f incubi, 
\ incubuses. 




7 


Focus, . . . . 


. . foci. 


Nucleus, . . . 


. nuclei. 


Fundus, . , . 


I funguses. 


Polypus, . . . 


. polypi. 




Radius, . . . . 


. radii. 


Genius, . . . . 


( f genii, 
I geniuses. 


Sarcophagus, . 


. sarcophagi. 




Stimulus, . . . 


. stimuli. 


Magus, . . . 


. . magi. 


Tumulus, . . . 


. tumuli. 


Apparatu. 


5 has the plural apparatus. Hiatus has the plural hiatus 


Ge?ius has th 


e plural genera. 








2. Singular in 


UM or ON, Plural in A. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Addendum, . 


. . addenda. 


Gymnasium 


r gymnasia, 
\ gymnasiums. 


Animalculun 


(.animalcula, 
\ animalcules. 






Mausoleum, 


r mausolea, 
\ mausoleums. 


Aphelion, . . 


. . aphelia. 




Arcanum, . . 


. . arcana. 


Medium, . . 


r media, 
\ mediums. 


Automaton, . 


r automata, 
\ automatons. 






Memorandum, /memoranda, 


Criterion, . . 


. . criteria. 




t memorandums. 


Datum, . . . . 


. . data, 


Perihelion, 


. . perihelia. 


Desideratum, 


. . desiderata. 


Phenomenon, . phenomena. 


Effluvium, . . 


. . effluvia. 


Postulatum, 


. . postulata. 


Emporium, . 


. . emporia. 


Scholium, . . 


( scholia, 
\ scholiums. 


Encomium, . 


j" encomia. 






^ encomiums. 


Speculum, . 


. . specula. 


Erratum, . . 


. . errata. 


Stratum, . 


. . strata. 




3. Singular 


in IS, Plural in ES. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Amanuensis, 


. . amanuenses. 


Hypothesis, . 


. . hypotheses. 


Antithesis, . . 


. . antitheses. 


Ignis fatuus, 


. . ignes fatui. 


Analysis, . . 


. . analyses. 


Metamorphosis, metamorphoses. 


Axis, 


. . axes. 


Oasis, .... 
Parenthesis, 


. . oases. 


Basis, . . . . 


. . bases. 


. . parentheses. 
. . phases. 


Crisis, 


. . crises. 


Phasis, . . . 


Diaeresis, . . . 


. . diaereses. 


Synthesis, . . 


. . syntheses. 


Ellipsis, . . . 


. . ellipses. 


Thesis, . . . 


. . theses. 



48 



ETYMOLOGY. 



SINGULAR. 

Aphis, . . 
Cantharis, 

SINGULAR. 

Apex, . . 



4. Singular in IS, Plural in IDES. 

PLURAL. SINGULAR. 



j aphides, 

\ aphids. 

. cantharides. 



Chrysalis, , 
Ephemeris, 



5. Singular in EX, Plural in CES. 

PLURAL. SINGULAR. 

Helix, . . . 



Appendix, 
Calx, . . . 

Calyx, . . 



SINGULAR. 

Alumna, 
Formula, 
Lamina, 



SINGULAR. 



c apices, 
\ apexes, 
r appendices, 
X appendixes. 
( calces, 
\ calxes. 
< calyces, 
\ calyxes. 

6. Singular in A, Plural in 2E. 

PLURAL. SINGULAR. 

. alumnae. Larva, . . 

f formulae, Nebula, . 

I formulas. Scoria, . . 

. laminae. Vertebra, 



Index, 

Eadix, 

Vertex, 

Vortex. 



PLURAL. 

( chrysalides, 
\ chrysalids. 
. ephemerides. 



PLURAL. 

r helices, 
\ helixes, 
r indices, 
\ indexes. 
. radices. 
. vertices. 
( vortices, 
X vortexes. 



7. Singular in A, Plural in ATA. 



Dogma, 



PLURAL. 

j dogmata, 
\ dogmas. 



SINGULAR. 



Stigma, 



Singular in ES, Plural in ES. 



SINGULAR. 

Series, . 
Species, 

SINGULAR. 



Cherub, . 



PLURAL. 



SINGULAR. 

Superficies, 



series. 
species." 

9. Hebrew Plurals in IM. 

PLURAL. SINGULAR. 



J cherubim 
I cherubs. 



Seraph, . 



SINGULAR. 

Bandit, 

Conversazione, 

SINGULAR. 

Beau 



10. Italian Plurals in I. 

PLURAL. SINGULAR. 

/ banditti, Cicerone, 

Dilettante, 



I bandits. 

. conversazioni. 



Virtuoso, 



11. French Plurals. 

PLURAL. SINGULAR. 

( beaux, Madame, . 

I beaus. Monsieur, . 



PLURAL. 

. larvae. 

. nebulae. 

. scoriae. 

. vertebrae. 

PLURAL. 

j stigmata, 

\ stigmas. 

PLURAL. 

. superficies. 



PLURAL. 

( seraphim. 
\ seraphs. 

PLURAL. 

. ciceroni. 
. dilettanti. 
. virtuosi. 

PLURAL. 

. mesdames. 
. messieurs. 



NOUNS. 49 

Remarks. — 1. Genius, which is sometimes written genie, has the plural genii 
when aerial spirits are meant; but geniuses when persons of genius are intended. 

2. Instead of animalculum the English form animalcule is now generally used. 
The plural form animalculse is sometimes employed ; but this is not correct. 

3. Index has indices when referring to algebraic quantities ; but indexes when 
pointers or tables of contents are intended. 

4. Messrs., from the French Messieurs, is used as the plural of Mr. 

5. Cherubims and seraphims are sometimes found as the plural of cherub and 
seraph. This is making a double plural and should be avoided. 

6. Stamen has stamens when referring to the organs of a flower and stamina 
when meaning foundation. 

7. Some words derived from foreign languages have no singular ; as, antipodes, 
regalia, aborigines, paraphernalia, credenda, literati, minutise. So vertebrata, infusoria, 
and some other scientific terms. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the plural form of each of the following words : 

Table, door, chair, step, window, stove, oven, shovel, star, sun, 
moon, plant, candlestick, monarch, farmer, face, place, case. 

Box, fox, miss, wish, lash, lass, loss, inch, watch, atlas. 

Volcano, hero, cargo, veto, calico, potato, buffalo, memento, 
mulatto, manifesto, octavo, motto. 

Folio, bagnio, seraglio, punctilio, nuncio, bamboo, cuckoo, cameo. 

Story, history, mystery, lady, baby, fancy, study, duty, cherry, 
berry, theory, fury, ally, sty, entry. 

Day, play, chimney, alley, essay, ray, turkey, kidney, galley, valley. 

Calf, self, beef, leaf, sheaf, shelf, life, grief, hoof, brief, roof, chief. 

Child, ox, man, woman, tooth, foot, goose, mouse, louse, die, 
penny, brother. 

Handful, spoonful, cupful, sister-in-law, mother-in-law, aide-de- 
camp, commander-in-chief, court-martial. 

Deer, sheep, swine, vermin, means, odds," news. 

Alumnus, focus, fungus, genius, magus, radius, tumulus, nucleus, 
genus, apparatus. 

Addendum, arcanum, criterion, erratum, memorandum, stratum, 
phenomenon, medium. 

Amanuensis, antithesis, axis, basis, crisis, ellipsis, hypothesis, 
metamorphosis, oasis, thesis, chrysalis, parenthesis, ignis fatuus. 

Apex, appendix, calyx, index, vertex, vortex. 

Lamina, formula, larva, nebula, vertebra, stamen, series, species, 
cherub, seraph, bandit, virtuoso. 

2. Correct the errors in the following: 

Negros, heros, folioes, volcanos, punctilioes, cargos, calicos, mottos. 
Ladys, storys, glorys, babys, berrys, studys, cherrys, chimnies, 
vallies, turkies, monkies. 

5 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

Sheafs, thiefs, elfs, staffs, deers, sheeps, vermins, swines. 

Father -in -laws, brother- in -laws, court-martials, commander-in- 
chiefs, knight-errants, hanger-ons, Mussulmen. 

Two cups full of water, three spoons full of milk, five hands 

full of sand, three thimbles full of wine. 

Note. — These expressions are correct if we mean two separate cups filled 
with water, etc. 

The Misses Smith, the Masters Smith, the two Misses Bell, the 
Ladies Mary, the five Misses Brown. 

Alumnuses, maguses, radiuses, tumuluses, the genuses of plants, 
erratums, datums, stratums. One strata of coal. They were alarmed 
at this phenomena. 

Antithesises, basises, crisises, oasises, thesises, aphises, chrysalises, 
larvas, nebulas, serieses, speciesses, cherubims, seraphims. 

GENDER. 

Gender is a property of nouns founded on the distinc- 
tion of sex. 

There are four genders; the masculine, the feminine, the 
common, and the neuter. 

Nouns which denote males are of the Masculine Gender ; 
as, man, boy, lion, he. 

Nouns which denote females are of the Feminine Gender ; 
as, woman, girl, lioness, she. 

Nouns which denote living beings without reference to sex are 
of the Common Gender ; as, parent, cousin, sheep, I, who. 

Nouns which denote things without sex are of the Neuter 
Gender; as, tree, paper, booh, it. 

In some languages adjectives vary their terminations on account 
of the gender of the nouns to which they belong; but this is not 
the case in English, and the only practical question connected with 
the gender of a noun is whether he, she, or it should be used to 
represent the object. 

Remarks. — 1. Observe that the word gender does not mean sea;. It is a gram- 
matical term applied to the names of objects, while sex belongs to the objects 
themselves. There are only two sexes, but there are four distinctions of nouns 
arising from sex. 

2. The word neuter means neither. The neuter gender includes the names 
of those objects which are neither male nor female, or, in other words, have no se?< 



NOUNS. 



51 



The common gender includes those words that are common to both sexes, or, in 
other words, are applied without reference to sex. (See Note E.) 

3. For some classes of living beings we have terms which are applied to 
every individual of the class without reference to sex, that is, nouns of the com- 
mon gender ; and also terms denoting the males and the females, that is, nouns 
of the masculine and feminine genders. 

Thus, sheep is of the common gender, ram of the masculine, and ewe of the 
feminine. 

4. For other classes we have nouns of the common gender only ; and when 
we wish to denote the males or the females we join to the nouns of the common 
gender words that point out the sex of the objects. 

Thus, sparrow is of the common gender, and cock-sparrow denotes the male, 
and hen-sparrow the female. 

5. For other classes we have no nouns of the common gender, but only those 
which denote males and females. 

Thus, horse is of the masculine and mare of the feminine gender; but there 
is no name applied to every individual in the class without reference to sex. 

In such cases, if we wish to denote the whole class, we either 

(a) Use both the masculine and the feminine nouns ; as, "Brothers and sisters 
should love each other;" or, 

(6) Employ a circumlocution; as, "The children of the same parents should 
love each other;" or, 

(c) Use the name applied to that sex, whether male or female, to which the 
attention is most frequently directed, to include the whole class. Thus when we 
say, "Horses are graminiverous animals," we include mares; and when we say, 
"Geese are noisy," we include ganders. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Words which are applied to every individual in the class 
without reference to sex, the male and the female being denoted by 
other words. 



COMMON. MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


COMMON. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Person, . . . man, . 


. woman. 


Hog, 


. boar, . 


. sow. 


Child, .... son, . 


. daughter. 




c buck, . 


. doe. 


Parent, . . . father, 


. mother. 


Deer, . 


J stag, . 


. hind. 


Pish, milter, 


. spawner. 




Ihart, . 


. roe. 


Bird or fowl, cock, . 


. hen. 


Sheep, . 


. ram, . 


. ewe. 



2. Names applied to every individual in the class, other words 
being connected with the name of the object to denote the sex. 

COMMON. MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Kelative, male relative, female relative. 

Servant, man-servant, maid-servant. 

Sparrow, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow. 

Goat, he-goat, she-goat. 

Turkey turkey-cock, turkey-hen. 



52 



ETYMOLOGY. 



3. Different words applied to each of the sexes, no term common 
to both being in use. 



MASCULINE. 



FEMININE. 



MASCULINE. 



FEMININE. 



Bachelor maid. 

Beau, belle. 

Boy, girl. 

Bridegroom, .... bride. 

Brother, sister. 

Bull, cow. 

Bullock or steer, . heifer. 

Drake, duck. 

Friar [monk], . . nun. 
Gander, goose. 



Horse, mare. 

Husband, . . . wife. 

King, queen. 

Lad, lass. 

Lord, lady. 

Nephew, .... niece. 

Sir, madam. 

Sloven, slut. 

Uncle, aunt. 

"Wizard, .... witch. 









JfTo this class belong the following, in which the feminine noun 
is formed by changing the termination of the masculine. They are 
chiefly appellations derived from offices and occupations. 

The feminine termination ess is the regular English termination; 
the other feminine terminations belong to foreign languages. 



MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Abbott, abbess. 

Actor, actress. 

Adulterer, adultress. 

Arbiter, arbitress. 

Baron, baroness. 

Benefactor, benefactress. 

Caterer, cateress. 

Chanter, „ chantress. 

Conductor, conductress. 

Coun% 1 

Earl, ./."."'* 

Dauphin, dauphiness. 

Deacon, deaconess. 

Duke, duchess. 

Elector, electress. 

Embassador, .... embassadress. 

Emperor, empress. 

Enchanter, enchantress. 

Giant, giantess. 

God, goddess. 

Governor, governess. 



MASCULINE. 



FEMININE. 



countess. 



Heir, heiress. 

Host, hostess. 

Hunter, .... huntress. 
Instructor, . . instructress. 

Jew, Jewess. 

Lion, lioness. 

Marquis, .... marchioness. 

Master, mistress. 

Mayor, mayoress. 

Patron, patroness. 

Peer, peeress. 

Poet, poetess. 

Priest, priestess. 

Prince, princess. 

Prior, prioress. 

Prophet, .... prophetess. 
Protector, . . . protectress. 
Shepherd, . . . shepherdess. 
Songster, .... songstress. 
Sorcerer, .... sorceress. 
Tiger, tigress. 



NOUNS. 



53 



MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. 

Traitor, .... traitress or traitor ess. Infante or infant, infanta. 

Tutor, .... tutoress or tutress. Signor, signora. 

Viscount,. ... viscountess. Czar, czarina 

Votary, .... votaress or votress. Don, donna. 

Sultan, .... sultaness or sultana. Testator, testatrix. 

Administrator, administratrix. Hero, heroine. 

Executor,. . . executrix. Landgrave, . . . landgravine. 

Equestrian, . equestrienne. Margrave, .... margravine. 

William, . . . Wilhelmina. George, Georgiana. 

Henry, .... Henrietta. Charles, Charlotte. 

To these add widower, widow; the masculine in this case being 
formed from the feminine. 

Remarks. — 1. The sex of the lower animals is generally, and that of young 
children often, disregarded, the pronoun it being applied to them; as, "The dog 
seized the snake and killed it;" "They dosed the child with drugs till they 
killed it" 

2. Sometimes a whole species of the lower animals is regarded as male or as 
female from the most prominent characteristics of the species as compared with 
those of the human race; as, "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways 
and be wise." Here the ant is spoken of as female on account of its possessing 
the domestic and industrious habits which the writer supposes to belong to 
females of the human race. 

3. Nouns denoting office, occupation, character, etc., are generally of the 
common gender, having no reference to sex. Thus painter means a person that 
paints, not a male person that paints, and there is no need of the word paintress ; 
editor means a person that edits, and there is no need of the word editress; writer 
means a person that writes, and we need writress no more than we need readress. 
Some persons are so fond of the feminine termination that they even propose to 
introduce such words as teachress. Why then should we not have physicianess, 
patientess, wretchess, neighboress, companioness, sinneress, traveleress? Why should 
not the lover speak of a charming creaturess and a lovely beingessf Would it be 
surprising to hear some one speak of a woman as his guidess, philosophress, and 
friendess ? 

4. Though in reality no objects except animals have the distinction of sex, 
yet in figurative language inanimate objects are often regarded as distinguished 
by sex. Thus we say of the sun, "He is shining;" of the moon, "She is 
beautiful." 

5. When inanimate objects are represented as having sex the names of those 
which are distinguished for strength, power, or other qualities of the male sex 
are regarded as masculine; and the names of those distinguished for beauty, 
loveliness, or other feminine qualities are considered as feminine. Thus sun, 
death, time, winter, war, anger are masculine ; and moon, earth, nature, virtue, spring, 
peace, health are feminine. 

0. A collective noun, when used properly as such, that is, when it denotes a 
collection of objects regarded as one body, is neuter; as, "The army destroyed 
every thing in its course." 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the gender of each of the following nouns : 

Hero, man, woman, countess, candle, bench, window, ewe, lamp, 
master, scissors, belle, goose, watch, cousin, parent, fool, clock, 
quadruped, bird, turkey, wisdom, marquis, animal, teacher, neighbor. 

2. Name the feminine corresponding to each of the following masculine nouns : 
Father, prince, king, lion, lord, nephew, priest, boy, man, friar, 

executor, shepherd, don, master, earl, count. 

3. Name the masculine corresponding to each of the following feminine nouns : 
Baroness, marchioness, heroine, duchess, countess, niece, aunt, 

prophetess, widow, daughter, duck, roe, heiress, sultana, witch. 

CASE. 

Case is that property of nouns which denotes their relation 
to other words. 

There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective. 

I. Nominative Case. 

The Nominative Case is the case of a noun employed 
as the subject of a finite verb; as, "John runs;" "The dog 
was killed;" "I write;" "He runs." 

Remarks. — 1. The subject of a verb denotes that of which something is affirmed. 
It may usually be known by its forming the answer to the question made by putting 
who or what before the verb. Thus, if we ask, "Who runs?" the answer will be 
"John;" if we ask, " What was killed?" the answer will be "The dog." John and 
dog, then, are in the nominative case. 

2. There are a great many different relations ; but there are only three 
forms; and that only in pronouns, the nominative and the objective being alike in 
other nouns. Therefore the same form must sometimes be employed to express 
more than one relation. Nominative means naming, and when we merely name 
an object we put the name in the nominative, or naming, case. And every relation 
not expressed by one of the other cases is expressed by the nominative case. 
Thus the noun is in the nominative case when it is independent of any verb or 
when it is in the predicate and is not the object of a transitive verb or a prepo- 
sition; as, "Jane, Mary has come;" "John is a student." "It is 7." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following nouns are in the nominative case. (The words 
in italics are verbs) : 

Peter whistles. Jane sings. You sing. Mary sings sweetly. I saw 
a bear. The horse gallops. Birds fly in the air. Whales swim in the 



NOUNS. 55 

sea. Josephine is beautiful. Benjamin went to town. Charles is 
attentive. You read well. The traveler killed the robber. George 
saw a deer. Thomas ran fast. The snake bit the dog. The elephant 
is large. The robber was killed by the traveler. James has come. 
Jane v:rites well. Who was here? 

2. Put a noun in the nominative case in each of the following blanks . 

.... learns rapidly saw the boy is here has 

read the book is diligent is lovely plays well. 

.... deserves praise will triumph crossed the river. 

.... go to school went into the house has recited 

.... sees us is very warm are ripe defeated 

Pompey runs. 

II. Possessive Case. 

The Possessive Case is the case of a noun employed to 
denote the object as possessor; as, "John's hat;" "My hat;" 
"His hat;" "Whose hat?" 

The possessive case does not always indicate actual possession; 
it may indicate possible or intended possession. Thus children's hats 
denote such hats as usually belong to children, or such hats as they 
are expected to possess. Books, inventions, discoveries, etc., are rep- 
resented as belonging to those who produced them; as, "Milton's 
Paradise Lost;" " Day's blacking." 

The possessive case in the singular number is usually formed 
by adding s preceded by an apostrophe (') to the nominative; as, 
William, William's; boy, boy's. 

When the nominative plural ends in s the possessive plural is 
formed by adding the apostrophe only; as, boys, boys 1 . 

When plural nouns do not end in s they form their possessive 
by taking both the apostrophe and s; as, "Men's hats." 

When the nominative singular and the nominative plural are 
alike some place the apostrophe after the s in the possessive plural 
to distinguish it from the possessive singular; as, singular, deer's; 
plural, deers'. 

When the nominative ends with the sound of s or z the s of the 
possessive case is sometimes omitted, especially if the next word begins 
with the sound of s or z; as, " Archimedes' screw, for conscience' sake, 
Jesus' name." 

On this subject no definite rule can be given. If the addition of s 
would not produce a decidedly disagreeable sound, the regular form 
should be used; as, "James's stories," "Chambers's Journal," "The 
witness's oath." 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

It is often better to use the objective with of; as, "The works of 
Euripides," instead of "Euripides's works." 

By poetic license omission of the s is more common in poetry than 
in prose. 

The rule has been laid down that the s should not be added to any 
common noun ending with the sound of s ; but no good speaker would 
ever say, "The prince 1 father," "Her niece 7 conduct," "A mouse 7 
teeth," "That horse 1 mane." 

The ancient form of the possessive was es or is; as, "The knightes 
tale' 7 — Chaucer; " My fadris house " — Wiclif. The apostrophe, which 
word literally means a turning away, marks the turning away, or 
removal, of the e or i. 

In compound words the sign of the possessive case is placed at 
the end; as, "His father-in-law 7 s horse;" "The knight-errant 1 s ad- 
venture." 

Note. — Eemember that the plural sign is not placed at the end; as, "The 
two fathers-in-law met in the street;" "The two knights-errant had a romantic 
adventure." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name six nouns in the possessive case. 

2. Write or spell the possessive case of each of the following words : 
Man, boy, girl, women, men, boys, girls, John, James, Thomas, 

beauty, author, master, mistress, councilman, alderman, aldermen, 
ladies, governor, president, dandy, coquette, apothecary, physician, 
villain, aide-de-camp, cousin -german, sister-in-law, mother-in-law, 
man-servant. 

III. Objective Case. 

The Objective Case is the case of a noun employed as 
the object of a transitive verb in the active voice or of a 
preposition; as, "John struck William-" "John hit me;" 
"Thomas is lying on the bed" 

Here William is the object of struck, which is a transitive verb 
in the active voice; me is the object of the verb hit; bed is the 
object of the preposition on. 

Remarks.— 1. The object may generally be known by its forming the answer 
to the question made by putting whom or what after the verb or preposition. 
Thus, "John struck whom?" Answer: William. "Thomas is lying on what?" 
Answer: The bed. 

2. The word object in the definition has not the same meaning that it has 
when we say, "A noun is the name of an object," or "All the objects in the uni- 
verse.'* It denotes that to which the action or relation is directed. 



NOUNS. 57 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following names are in the objective case. (The transitive 
verbs are in capital letters, and the prepositions in italics) : 

"The snake bit the dog." 

The noun dog is in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
transitive verb bit. 

The snake bit the dog. The wolf bit the horse. John threw 
a stone. The stone struck me. I looked at him. Ada is above us. 
James threw an apple. George went into the house. James ran 
up the street. Birds fly in the air. The storm destroyed the house. 
Thomas studies grammar. Mary read the book. Ellen fell into the 
water. William saw Harriet. Florence wrote a letter. Minnie is 
under the tree. Frank went from Louisville to Mobile. Jonathan 
lives in Boston. The cat jumped from the chair. The dog chased 
the deer. 

2. Put a noun in the objective case in each of the following blanks : 

John sees .... "William caught .... Eliza reads .... Samuel 
found .... Edward received .... Ellen has .... Margaret 
loves .... The boy killed .... John broke .... Sarah ate ... . 
Annie wrote .... Edgar hurt .... Simon threw .... The frost 
injured .... The horse kicked .... The wolf tore .... Theodore 
whittled .... Mary saw .... Jane drank .... 

3. Tell the case of each of the following nouns. (The transitive verbs are in 
capitals, and the prepositions in italics) : 

"Henry whipped Emma's horse.' ' 

Henry is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the 
verb whipped. 

Emma's is in the possessive case, because it denotes Emma as 
possessor. 

Horse is in the objective case, because it is the object of the verb 
whipped. 

Henry whipped Emma's horse. Albert whipped my horse. Julia 
came with me. Martha came with Julius. Aaron lost the book. 
Kain refreshes the earth. Grace lost Mary's ball. Thomas's dog 
caught a rabbit. His dog caught a squirrel. Mary's cat caught a 
rat. Alfred placed Jane's bonnet on the chair. Edmund's horse 
broke the bridle. Edgar found the man's knife. Edmund found 
our turkey. The oxen draw the wagon. The dentist extracted 
Fanny's tooth. Sarah has a pen. Anne's brother loves flowers. 
The officer put the prisoner in jail. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 



PEKSOK 



Person is that property of nouns which denotes relation 
to the act of speaking. 

Thus I denotes the person speaking, thou or you the person spoken 
to, and he, she, it objects spoken of. 

Person is regarded in grammar because the form of the 
verb varies with the person of the subject; as, ".I walk, thou 
walkest, he walks." 

There are three persons; the first person, the. second person, 
and the third person. 

A noun that denotes the person speaking is of the first 
person, a noun that denotes the person spoken to is of the 
second person, and a noun that denotes an object spoken of is 
of the third person. 

I (plur. we) is the only word that is in itself of the first person. 

Thou (plur. you) is the only word that is in itself of the second 
person. 

He, she, it (plur. they) and all nouns (except I, we, thou, you) when 
employed as the subjects of verbs are of the third person. 

A relative pronoun is of the first person when denoting the person 
speaking, of the second person when denoting the person spoken to, 
and of the third person when denoting an object spoken of; as, "I 
who walk, thou who walkest, O man who walkest, he who walks, the 
man who walks. 11 

Remarks.— 1. The word person originally signified the mask which Roman 
actors wore on the stage ; then it was used to denote the character represented 
by the actor; then any character; then the man that bore the character; then 
any man or human being. It is in this last sense that we now ordinarily use the 
word. But the grammatical term person denotes the character that the noun bears 
in relation to the act of speaking. When we say, "The first person denotes the 
person speaking," we use the same word in two different senses. 

2. When the speaker joins to I his name or some other word denoting him 
the word that is joined is generally said to be of the first person, as in "I, the 
governor, proclaim." But in this sentence I is the only word that affects the 
form of the verb, and it is of no practical use to attribute person to governor. 
Indeed, if person is to be attributed to governor at all, the word is rather of the 
third person than of the first. The sentence is equivalent to "I, who am the 
governor, proclaim," "I, who am he that governs, proclaim." "I, John Smith, the 
man that built the house." Here man is said to be of the first person; but 
without doing violence to the meaning he might be employed instead of man, as, 
"I, John Smith, he that built the house." 



NOUNS, 



59 



EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the person of each of the following nouns : 

I spoke. You listened. Ida heard. Charles rode. Thou runnest. 
He flies. She flies. Martha is singing. Andrew is writing. It cries. 
Thou art jesting. I wish. Thou wishest. Henry wishes. You say. 

2. Tell the person of each of the following relative pronouns : 

He who studies will learn. The boy that studies will learn. You 
that study will learn. O lady, who art as good as fair ! O villain, 
who seekest to destroy me! Thou sun that rollest above! O Thou 
who hearest the mourner's prayer ! 

DECLENSION. 

Declension is the regular arrangement of a noun according 
to its cases and numbers. 





1. Boy. 


EXA 


jvm^s. 2 Lady ^ 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Nominative, 


boy; 


boys; 


Nominative, lady; 


ladies ; 


Possessive, 


boy's; 


boys'; 


Possessive, lady's; 


ladies'; 


Objective, 


boy. 
3. Man. 


boys. 


Objective, lady. 
4. Fox. 


ladies. 


Nominative, 


man; 


men; 


Nominative, fox; 


foxes ; 


Possessive, 


man's; 


men's; 


Possessive, fox's; 


foxes'; 


Objective, 


man. 


men. 


Objective, fox. 


foxes. 



First Person. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 



PRONOUNS. 



Nom. I; we; 

Poss. my or min e ; our or ours ; 

Obj. me. us. 

Third Person — Masculine. 

Nom. he ; they ; 

Poss. his; their or theirs 

Obj. him. them. 



Second Person. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. thou; ye or you; 

Poss. thy or thine, ' your or yours ; 
Obj. thee. you. 

Third Person — Feminine. 
Nom. she; they; 

Poss. her or hers ; their or theirs ; 
Obj. her. them. 



Nominative, it ; 



Possessive, its; 
Objective, it. 



Third Person — Neuter. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative, they ; 

Possessive, their or theirs ; 



Objective, them. 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 

Kelative. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. who; who; Nom. which; which; 

Poss. whose; whose; Poss. whose; whose; 

Obj. whom. whom. Obj. which. which. 

Remarks.— 1. Where there are two forms of the possessive case one of them 
is used when the name of the thing possessed is expressed, the other when it is 
omitted. Thus, " That is your book, but this is mine (my book);" " This is my book, 
but that is yours (your book)." Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel or 
silent h ; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities.''' They are still so used in the solemn style. 

2. These words, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, are by some said to stand for 
the names of both the possessor and the thing possessed. This is not correct. The 
name of the thing possessed is omitted because it has been previously expressed or 
is easily understood. " This is my book, but that is John's." It would be as correct 
to say that John's in this sentence stands for both John's and book as to say that yours 
in the preceding remark stands for both your and book. 

3. The s seems to have been added to our, your, their, and her, to give them the 
termination of the possessive case. The ear is more easily reconciled to the absence 
of the possessive termination when the pronoun is placed before the name of the 
thing possessed than when it is not. His and its have the possessive termination, 
and the omission of the noun makes no change in their form. (See Note F.) 

4. In the third person singular there is a pronoun for each of the three genders ; 
but the pronouns of the first and second persons are of the common gender, these 
words having no reference to sex. The plural they is also, accurately speaking, of 
the common gender. 

5. Originally, thou was the only pronoun used in addressing a single person ; 
but from flattery or politeness you began to be used in such cases ; and it has now 
entirely usurped the place of thou except in the solemn style. The Friends, or 
Quakers, still use thou in common discourse. 

The plural we is often used for the singular I by kings, editors of 
periodical publications, public speakers, and others. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell the gender, person, number, and case of each of the following pronouns : 
I [common gender, first person, singular number, nominative case], 
me, him, us, her, she, ours, we, you, yours, them, your, they, mine, its, 
it, hers, who, our, my, ours, whom, their, ye, theirs, he, his. 

PARSING. 
To Parse a word is to tell its properties and office. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse the nouns in the following sentences. (The words in italics are prepo- 
sitions, and those in capitals are transitive verbs) : 

Rules.-i-l. The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

2. The object of a transitive verb must be in the objective case. 

3. The object of a preposition must be in the objective case. 

4. A noun in the possessive case limits the application of another noun. 



NOUNS. 61 

"I know him." 

7 is a noun — the name of an object; of the class of nouns called 
personal pronouns — it is always of the same person; singular number — 
it denotes but one; common gender — it denotes objects without refer- 
ence to sex; first person — it denotes the person speaking; nominative 
case — subject of the verb know. 

Rule.— The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Him is a noun — the name of an object; of the class of nouns 
called personal pronouns — it is always of the same person; singular 
number — it denotes but one object; masculine gender — it denotes a 
male; third person — it denotes the object spoken of; objective case — 
object of the transitive verb know. 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

"He hurt me." 

He is a noun; personal pronoun; singular number; masculine 
gender; third person; nominative case — subject of the verb hurt. 

Rule. — The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

Me is a noun; personal pronoun; singular number; common 
gender; first person; objective case — object of the transitive verb 
hurt, 

"George hurt Jane." 

George is a noun — the name of an object; proper noun — the name 
of an individual object; singular number — it denotes but one object; 
masculine gender — it denotes a male; third person — it denotes an object 
spoken of; nominative case — subject of the verb hurt. 

Jane is a* noun; proper; singular number; feminine gender; third 
person; objective case — object of the transitive verb hurt. 

"He helps himself." 

Himself is a noun — the name of an object; of the class of nouns 
called personal pronouns — it is always of the same person; compound 
personal pronoun — it is compounded of him and self; singular num- 
ber; masculine gender; third person; objective case — object of the 
transitive verb helps. 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

"Peter drove his horse from John's barn." 

His is a noun; personal pronoun; singular number; masculine 
gender; third person; possessive case — it denotes the person as pos- 
sessor; it limits the application of the noun horse. 

Rule. — A noun in the possessive case modifies another noun. 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 

Note. — The word horse is applicable to any one of the whole class of horses ; 
but the word his limits its application to a particular horse. 

Barn is a noun, etc.; objective case — object of the preposition from. 

Rule. — The object of a preposition must be in the objective case. 

"He fined the boy who broke the window." 

Who is a noun ; of the class of nouns called relative pronouns — it 
makes a close connection of its proposition (who broke the window) 
with the noun boy; singular number; common gender; third person — 
it denotes an object spoken of; nominative case — subject of the verb 
broke. 

Rule. — The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

"We despise whom you fear." 

Whom is a noun — the name of an object; of the class of nouns called 
relative pronouns — it makes a close connection of its proposition (whom 
you fear) with the noun person understood ; singular number ; common 
gender; third person; objective case — object of the transitive verb fear. 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

Note. — The relative pronoun comes before the verb of which it is the object. 

"The man found what he wanted." 

What is a noun — the name of an object; of the class of nouns 
called relative pronouns — it makes a close connection of its proposition 
(what he wanted) with the noun thing understood, etc. 

"Whoever pursues pleasure will find pain." 

Whoever is a noun; relative pronoun — it makes a close connection 

of its proposition (whoever pursues pleasure) with the noun he or 

person understood; compound relative pronoun — compounded of who 

and ever, etc. 

"Who has cut this tree?" I cut it. 

• Who is a noun — the name of an object; of the class of nouns called 
interrogative pronouns — it is used in asking a question ; singular num- 
ber;* common gender; third person; nominative case. (Rule.) 

Note. — Who is equivalent to the noun person with the adjective what — what 
person. The statement made by some grammarians that who agrees in gender, 
person, and number with what they call the " subsequent," meaning the word in 
the answer corresponding to who, is incorrect. Who is always of the third person, 
no matter what may be the person of the " subsequent'," and it may be in a 
different number from the "subsequent," Thus, the question, "Who has cut this 
tree?" may be answered by "I cut it," "We cut it," "George and James cut it." 

* It is known to be in the singular number here by the fact that the verb has cut 
is in the singular. 



NOUNS. 63 

If the speaker supposes that the answer will include more than one, he uses the 
plural form of the verb with who, but not because the "subsequent" is plural; 
for, contrary to his expectation, the answer may show only one. Thus, "Who 
have cut this tree?" "George cut it." 

""We did not attack you." 
[Addressed by the editor of a newspaper to a single person.] 

We is a noun ; personal pronoun, etc. ; plural number used for the 
singular; nominative case, etc. 

You is a noun, etc.; plural number used for the singular; objective 
case, etc. 

I know him. He hurt me. George hurt Jane. He helps 
himself. Columbus discovered America. Peter drove his horse 
from John's barn. The rain destroyed the crop. Mary loves 
study. "William helped Julius. Edward pushed Kate over the 
chair. The snow broke the tree. 

William threw a pen at me. Albert's cow ate the corn. Jacob 
loved Joseph. Joseph's brothers deceived Jacob. You deceived 
me. The gardener plucked the fruit from the tree. The man 
pulled the boy from the tree. 

James's horse kicked him. Thomas threw his ball over the fence. 
Thou knowest me. The man bought hay for the horse. James 
Gordon planted potatoes in April. Henry Morton led the horse 
to water. 

He fined the boy who broke the window. I see the boy who 
broke my slate. I know a boy that has a ball. The king who 
respects the laws makes his people happy. Mary took the book 
which I BOUGHT. 

The dog bit the cat that caught the rat. The boy who reads 
instructive books gains knowledge. John killed the snake which 
bit his dog. The man that robbed him suffered- punishment. I 
gave the book to him who helped me. I see the man who found 
my knife. 

We despise whom you fear. We fear whom you despise. 
The man found what he wanted. Thomas does what pleases 
his parents. He sees what you see. 

Whoever pursues pleasure will find pain. We love whoever 
loves us. Avoid whatever injures another. Whosoever hateth 
wisdom hateth life. He hates whomsoever thou lovest. He 
loves whomsoever thou hatest. 

Who killed that bird? Who got the medal? Who built 
that house? Whose knife had you? Who spoiled the book? 
Whose book have you? 



64 ETYMOLOGY, 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

Of what does etymology treat? Into how many classes are words divided? 
What is a part of speech? Name the parts of speech. What is a noun? What 
is a proper noun? A common noun? A collective noun? An abstract noun? 
A quantitive noun? 

What is a pronoun? Into how many classes are pronouns divided? What is 
a personal pronoun? Name the personal pronouns. What are compound personal 
pronouns? Name the compound personal pronouns. For what are compound 
personal pronouns used? 

What is a relative pronoun? What is the preceding noun called? What is 
a relative proposition ? Name the relative pronouns. To what is who applied ? 
To what is which applied? That? What? When is that a relative? Is the ante- 
cedent always expressed? What is a compound relative pronoun? When are 
compound relative pronouns used? 

What is an interrogative pronoun? 

When is who called an indefinite pronoun? 

When may as be regarded as a relative pronoun? Than? 

What is number? What does the singular number denote? What the plural 
number? What is the regular mode of forming the plural? When is es added? 
How do nouns ending in o form the plural? Nouns ending in y? 

What is gender? What nouns are of the masculine gender? Of the feminine 
gender ? Of the common gender ? Of the neuter gender ? 

What is case? What is the nominative case ? The possessive case ? How is 
the possessive case in the singular number formed ? In the plural number ? What 
is the objective case? 

What is person ? When is a noun of the first person ? Of the second person ? 
Of the third person? What word is of the first person? What word is of the 
second person? What words are of the third person? When is a relative pronoun 
of the first person ? Of the second person ? When of the third ? 

What is declension? 



ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word joined to a noun to show the 
extent of its application or to denote some quality of the 
object; as, "A good boy, a sweet apple, one book, this man, 
all men." 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

There are two classes of adjectives ; qualifying adjectives 
and limiting adjectives. 

A Qualifying Adjective denotes some quality belonging 
to the object ; as, "A bad road, a ripe nut, a violent storm." 

A Limiting Adjective shows the extent of the application 
of the noun ; as, "One book, the book, the first man, that thing, 
forty thieves." 



ADJECTIVES. 65 

Remarks.— 1. A qualifying adjective not only denotes a quality belonging to 
the object, but at the same time it limits the application of the noun. Thus, the 
expression, "a red apple," does not apply to so many objects as the word apple 
does; since there are not so many red apples as there are apples. The more 
adjectives we add to the noun, the fewer objects we include. The expression, "a 
sweet, mellow, red apple," comprehends more qualities than "a red apple," but 
does not extend to so many objects. 

2. This is what is meant when it is said that adjectives increase the compre- 
hension but diminish the extension of nouns. Limiting adjectives atfect only the 
extension ; the expression, forty thieves, does not extend to so many objects as the 
word thieves does, though it comprehends no more qualities. 

3. Limiting adjectives used in counting and numbering are called numeral 
adjectives; as, one, two, three, etc. ; first, second, third, etc. 

Adjectives derived from proper names are sometimes called proper adjectives ; 
as, American, from America. . 

4. The limiting adjectives, each, every, either, neither, former, latter, some, other, 
any, one, all, such, none, this, that, and the plural forms, these, those, are sometimes 
called adjective pronouns. 

5. The reason given for this is that they sometimes belong to nouns, like 
adjectives, and at other times stand for nouns, like pronouns. Thus, in this sen- 
tence, "Each man has his faults," each belongs to the noun man; but if man is 
omitted, it is said that each stands for man; as, "Each has his faults." 

6. But the omission of the noun can not change these adjectives to pronouns. 
Other adjectives might be called pronouns on the same grounds. Thus, good 
might be called a pronoun in this sentence, " The good may err," because persons 
is omitted. 

7 This and that are the only adjectives which have a different form before 
plural nouns. 

8. None is used for no when the noun is omitted ; no being always used when 
the noun is expressed. Thus, "No person is so deaf as he that will not hear." 
"None is so deaf as he that will not hear." None in this case should be parsed 
as belonging to person understood. This word was formerly used when the noun 
was expressed; as, "We shall have none end." — Bacon. None is used when the 
noun comes first; as, "Friend there was none to help him." 

9. Nouns become adjectives when used to qualify other nouns: "A gold cup;" 
"Kentucky girls." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following words are adjectives and to what nouns they 
belong : 

Amusing books. Beautiful rivers. Lofty mountains. Good boys. 
"Warm days. Cold water. Bright faces. Bad hearts. Green leaves. 
Eed flowers. Sweet peaches. Muddy streets. Tall girls. 

These books are amusing. This river is beautiful. That mountain 
is lofty. Mary is amiable. Jane's face is bright. The road is muddy. 
The leaves are green. The flowers are red. The peaches are sweet. 
Those boys are good. Charles is industrious. Thomas is happy. The 
pears are ripe. Ice is cold. 

Ten men. This boy. Every girl. No trees. One rabbit. Each 
pupil. Every desk. Other lessons. All women. These cherries. 
Those pears. 

6 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

Ten good men. That bad boy. These green berries. Two large 
bears. Three amusing books. That beautiful river. Every fair lady. 
No green tree. Seven sweet apples. 

2. Join a qualifying adjective to each of the following nouns: 

Table, chair, hat, cap, book, inkstand, pen, hand, hair, window, cat, 
knife, boy, girl, woman, man, bird, cow, horse, dog, coat. 

3. Join a limiting adjective to each of the following: 

Pen, gun, bullets, box, watch, table, birds, men, hand, gate, foot, 
feather, book, desk, window. 

4. Join one qualifying and one limiting adjective to each of the following: 
Apple, pear, peach, road, street, town, bottle, fire, broom, balls, 

boxes, sash, ribbon. 

5. Join a noun to each of the following adjectives : 

Good, bad, fair, one, this, that, what, benevolent, happy, every, 
former, rich, poor, high, low, latter, tall, long-handed, weak-minded, 
weak, profitable, amusing, loving, Eoman, American, English, Irish, 
Scotch, Parisian. 

6. To what nouns do the adjectives in the following sentences belong? 
You may take this book, and I will take that. Let me die the 

death of the righteous. The wicked are like the troubled ocean. 
Anne is a good, but Jane is a bad girl. Providence rewards the 
good but punishes the bad. What boy is that? What do I see? 
All have their faults. Eound o and crooked s. 

7. Use the following nouns in such a way as to make them adjectives: 
Silver, iron, Tennessee, Ohio, paper, silk, cotton, cloth, leather, 

tin, Louisville, Jeffersonville. 

8. Tell which of the following words in italics are nouns and which are 
adjectives : 

He is an honest man. I like his honesty. She uttered a joyful 
cry. How great was her joy! He has a hard heart. He shows the 
hardness of his heart. This luxuriant growth is owing to the richness 
of the soil. The luxuriance of this growth is owing to the rich soil. 
His happiness is unalloyed. He is a very happy boy. 

ARTICLES. 

The limiting adjectives an or a and the are sometimes 
called articles. {See Note g.) 

The is called the definite article, and an or a the indefinite 
article. 



ADJECTIVES. 67 

When the definite article is used we refer to some particular object, 
or class of objects, either before spoken of or pointed out in some 
other way. 

When the indefinite article is used we refer to some one of a class 
but to no particular one. 

The word book is applied to each one of a whole class of objects; 
if I say, "Give me a book," I call for any one of these objects; if I 
say, " Give me the book," I ask for some particular book. 

When the noun is omitted one is used instead of an or a, and that 
or those instead of the; as, "If this is a sin, that is one," that is, a sin; 
" The life of Howard was that of a philanthropist," that is, the life of 
a philanthropist. 

DISTINCTION BETWEEN AN AND A. 

An is used before words beginning with vowel-sounds; as, "An 
apple, an enemy, an iron, an opinion, an uncle." 

A is used before words beginning with consonant - sounds ; as, 
"A bed, a tree, a castle, a garden." 

Remarks, —1. The indefinite article originally meant one. An was formerly- 
employed much more frequently than it is now; n is not added to a to form an, 
but it is dropped from an to make a. 

2. In some words beginning with h this letter is silent, and the first sound being 
a vowel-sound, an is used, and not a ; as, "An hour." 

3. Some words whose first letter is a vowel commence with a consonant-sound, . 
and consequently a, and not an, is used before them ; as, "A university, a eunuch, a 
ewe, many a one" University, eunuch, and ewe are pronounced as if they commenced 
with y, and one is pronounced wun. 

4. An is used before words beginning with h not silent if the accent is on the 
second syllable ; as, "An heroic action, an historical romance." 

5. The sound of h is weaker — that is, the breath is less forcibly emitted — when 
the word is accented on the second syllable than when the accent is on the first. The 
word historical seems almost to begin with a vowel-sound. 

6. A word whose primary accent is on the third or fourth syllable has a second- 
ary accent on the first, and a is used before such a word if it begins with h; a's, "A 
hypothetical cause." 

EXERCISES. 

Correct whatever errors occur in the following: 

A apple. An peach. An yeoman. An hireling. A adjective. 
An hand. A article. An man. A umpire. An Hindoo. A army. 
An being. 

A hour. An horse. A herb. An holiday. A honorable person. 
A heir. A honest man. An holy man. 

An union. Many an one. An useful man. An unit. An ewer. 
An university. An unicorn. An uniform appearance. An useless 
act. An European. An hard nut. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

A hosanna. A heroic action. An history. A historical account. 
An hero. An heretic. A heretical opinion. A harmonious family. 
A herbarium. A hereditary title. A hypothesis. An hypothetical 
proposition. A herbaceous plant. 

AKTICLES AND NUMBEKS. 

The is used with nouns either in the singular or the plural number ; 
as, "the book; the books." 

A or an is used with nouns in the singular number only. "We can 
not say, u a boohs. 11 

Remarks.— 1. A may seem to belong to plural nouns in such expressions as 
the following : "A dozen apples, a hundred books, a thousand men, a great many men." 
But a does not belong to apples* books, and men in the preceding examples, but to 
dozen, hundred, and many, which in such cases are collective nouns in the singular 
number. There is an ellipsis of the preposition of; thus, " a dozen of men, a hundred 
of men, a great many of men; that is, a great company of men. Here the adjective 
great, as well as a, belongs to the noun many. 

When a is used with numbers greater than thousands of must be expressed ; 
as, a million of men. So in some instances with a great many; as, "A great many 
of those books are worthless ;" "A great many of his followers deserted him." 

That hundred, thousand, etc., are nouns is evident; they may be used in the 
plural number; as, "Hundreds of men were slain in that battle." 

Note.— The word many is very often used by the old English writers as a noun 
signifying company, retinue, etc. Thus, "And eke with him cometh his meinie" 
[many]. — Chaucer. Spenser applies the word to three persons in the following pas- 
sage : " This fair many were compeld at last." Shakespeare uses a many without 

great; thus, „_ 

" For yet a many of your horsemen peer 

And gallop o'er the field."— Hen. V: Act iv, Sc. 5. 

Many is a noun in such expressions as the following: "The will of the many and 
their interests must very often differ." — Burke. 

2. A is used with a plural noun when the adjective few intervenes ; as, "A few 
books.'''' 

Note.— This construction probably had its origin in an ellipsis. Ane few menye, 
a few menye (that is, a small number or company), are expressions used by ancient 
authors. When many came to be generally used as an adjective opposed in meaning 
to few, the two words sounded harshly together, and many with the preposition 
following it was dropped. In this manner a few many of books was changed to a 
few books. 

3. A or an often comes between many and a singular noun; as, 

" When the merry bells ring round, 
And the jocund rebecks sound 
To many a youth and many a maid 
Dancing in the checkered shade."— Milton. 

Home Tooke considers a in such instances to be a corruption of of. Thus, many 
of maids, by corrupting the sound of of, as is frequently done, would become many 
a maids; and a being mistaken for the article, the noun would afterward be put in 
the singular. This form may, however, have arisen from transposing a many. 



ADJECTIVES. 69 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

The Comparison of an Adjective is a statement of its 
different forms. 

This is called comparison because the object of changing 
the forms of adjectives is to express comparison. 

Most limiting adjectives are incapable of comparison. 

There are three forms, which are called degrees of comparison; 
the positive degree, the comparative degree, and the superlative 
degree. 

The Positive Degree simply expresses the quality; as, 
"A sweet apple." 

The Comparative Degree is the form employed when 
the quality is represented as belonging to one of two objects 
in a higher degree than to the other; as, "This apple is 
sweeter than that." 

The Superlative Degree is the form employed when the 
quality is represented as belonging to one of several objects in 
a higher degree than to any of the rest; as, "This apple is the 
sweetest of all ;" " The rose is the fairest of flowers." 

Remarks. — 1. The comparison may be made between classes of objects as well 
as between single objects; as, "These apples are sweeter than those." 

2. The positive degree implies comparison, though the comparison is not form- 
ally expressed. "Mr. Smith is a tall man," implies a comparison with other men; 
for he would not be called a tall man if he did not exceed the generality of men in 
stature. 

3. The office of the comparative and superlative degrees is not to express a 
higher degree of the quality than that which is expressed by the positive. The 
degrees, though related in form, have no logical relation to each other. When we 
say, " Mr. Smith is a tall man," we compare Mr. Smith with men in general ; when 
we say, "Mr. Smith is taller than Mr. Jones," we compare two men and assert that 
the former has more of the quality than the latter, without referring to the absolute 
tall; when we say, " Mr. Smith is the tallest of the three men," we compare Mr. Smith 
with two other men in a similar way. (See Note H.) 

4. When the comparative is used a comparison is usually made between two 
degrees of the same quality in different objects; but sometimes the comparison is 
made between two degrees of the quality in the same object at different times, or in 
different circumstances; as, "He is wiser to-day than he was yesterday;" "He is 
happier at home than he is abroad." 

5. Sometimes the comparison is made between the degree of the quality which 
really exists and that which is supposed or said to exist ; as, " He is wiser than he is 
supposed to be." 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

6. The comparison is sometimes made between two degrees of different qualities 
in the same object; as, "He is more learned than wise;" that is, his learning is 
greater than his wisdom. 

7. The comparative is used when the objects compared belong to different 
classes ; the superlative when the objects belong to the same class. But the com- 
parative is used more frequently than the superlative when two objects belonging to 
the same class are compared ; as, " The wiser of the two." 

FOKMS OF THE COMPAKATIYE AND SUPEELATIYE. 

The comparative is regularly formed by adding er, and the 
superlative by adding est, to the positive ; as, 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


Sweet, 


. . sweeter, . 


. sweetest. 


Wise, . 


. . wiser, 


. wisest. 



POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Eed, . . . redder, . . reddest. 
Dry, . . . drier, . . . driest. 
[ See General Rules for Spelling, hi, v, and vii.] 

The same meaning is expressed by prefixing the adverbs more and 
most; as, sweet, more sweet, most sweet. 

This is the usual*way when the adjectives consist of more than one 
syllable; as, graceful, more graceful, most graceful. 

But words of two syllables, ending in y, or in le after a mute, or 
accented on the last syllable, may take the terminations er and est; as, 
happy, happier, happiest ; able, abler, ablest ; polite, politer, politest. 

Some other adjectives of two syllables take er and est; as, common, 
commoner, commonest; handsome, handsomer, handsomest. 

The adjective part of a compound adjective sometimes takes er and 
est; as, "The hardest-timbered oak." — Shakespeare. 

The following adjectives are compared in an irregular manner: 



POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVI 


.. SUPERLATIV 


Good, . . . better, . . 


. best. 


Much, . . 


. more, . 


. . most. 


Bad, .... worse, . . 


. worst. 


Many,. . 


. more, . 


. . most. 


Evil or ill, worse, . . 


. worst. 


Far, . . . 


. farther, 


. farthest. 


Little, . . . less, . . . 


. least. 


(Fore), . . 


further, 


. furthest. 



Remarks. — 1. Lesser is sometimes used as the comparative of little; as, " The 
Lesser Asia." 

2. Near and late have, besides the regular forms of the superlative, next and last. 

3. Old has, in addition to the regular comparative and superlative, elder and 
eldest. These are formed from eld, which is now obsolete. 

4. The superlative is sometimes formed by suffixing most to the positive or the 
comparative; as inmost, or innermost; hindmost, or hindermost; topmost. Foremost 
(Anglo-Saxon fyrmest) is the superlative of fore and is equivalent to first (fore-est, 
Anglo-Saxon fyrst). Former is regarded as the comparative of fore. The termination 
most is from the Anglo-Saxon double superlative termination mest, which consists 
of the regular termination est (ost) and m, part of an older form, ma. 



ADJECTIVES. 71 

5. A slight degree of a quality is expressed by suffixing ish; as, sweet, sweetish; 
sour, sourish. 

6. The adverbs less and least are sometimes used with the adjective when the 
object is represented as having a lower degree of the quality than belongs to the 
object or objects with which it is compared ; as, " This apple is less sweet than that." 
"She is the least handsome of them all." 

7. The adverbs more and most, less and least, should not be parsed as part of the 
adjective. In more beautiful, for instance, more is an adverb modifying the adjective 
beautiful. 

8. Most adjectives which denote qualities that can not exist in different degrees 
are not compared ; as, round, square, two-handed, almighty. 

9. But many adjectives which denote invariable qualities are by the best writers 
used in the comparative and the superlative, or what is equivalent to these forms ; 
as, " The sight is the most perfect of all our senses." — Addison. By this is meant 
that the sight approaches nearer to perfection than any other sense does. Of the 
same kind are just, upright, true, honest, complete, accurate, correct, regular, good, 
white, safe. 

10. The best writers and speakers in the language are in the habit of constantly 
using such expressions as more perfect. It would be improper to say that one thing 
is perfect and another more perfect than that ; but when we say that one thing is 
more perfect than another we do not mean that either is perfect, but merely that 
one approaches nearer to perfection than the other. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Name the comparative and the superlative of each of the following adjec- 
tives. With those that can not take er and est use the adverbs more and most : 

Red, rich, warm, hot, illustrious, ample, happy, ripe, able, discreet, 
industrious, learned, good, high, just, near, insignificant. 

2. In what degree is each of the following adjectives ? 

Wisest, better, good, politest, happy, virtuous, greater, apter, noble, 
richest, noblest. 

3. Correct the following: 

Beautifuler, alarmingest, agreeabler, delightfulest, comfortabler, 
amusingest. 

4. Before each of the following nouns put an adjective in the positive degree : 
Hand, face, chair, book, pen, paper, pencil, inkstand, blackboard, 

slate, teacher, scholar. 

5. Before each of the following nouns put an adjective in the comparative 
degree : 

Desk, table, tree, flower, bird, horse, cow, man, woman, fire, stove, 
floor, hammer, mallet. 

6. Before each of the following nouns put an adjective in the superlative 
degree : 

Boy, girl, lady, street, road, hall, bonnet, boat, board, staff, glove, 
finger, post. 



72 ETYMOLOGY, 



PARSING EXERCISES. 

The words in dark type are prepositions ; those in capitals are transitive verbs ; 
and those in italics are intransitive verbs. 

Note. — In parsing limiting adjectives, which are not compared, of course 
nothing is to be said of the degree of comparison. It is better, in general, to 
say nothing about the degree unless the adjective is in the comparative or the 
superlative degree. 

"That boy caught the vicious horse." 

That is a limiting adjective — it limits the application of a noun; it 
belongs to the noun boy. 

Rule. — Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Boy is a common noun, masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, nominative case — subject of the verb caught. 

Rule. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 

The is a limiting adjective — it limits the application of a noun; it 
belongs to the noun horse. 

Rule. — Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Vicious is a qualifying adjective— it expresses a quality belonging to 
an object; it belongs to the noun horse. 

Rule. — Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Horse is a noun, etc.; objective case — the object of the transitive 
verb caught. 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the 
objective case. 

"John has the warmest room." 

Warmest is a qualifying adjective — it expresses a quality belonging 
to an object; superlative degree — the quality is represented as belong- 
ing to one of several objects in a higher degree than to any of the rest; 
positive warm, comparative warmer, superlative warmest; it belongs to 
the noun room. 

Rule.— Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

"The fire is hot; the sun is hotter." 

Hotter is a qualifying adjective — it expresses a quality belonging to 
an object; comparative degree — the quality is represented as belonging 
to one of two objects in a higher degree than to the other; positive hot, 
comparative hotter, superlative hottest; it belongs to the noun sun. 

Rule. — Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

That boy caught the vicious horse. The large oak fell. A good 
man loves all men. Kobert got some sour apples. See the beautiful 



VERBS. 73 

rose. William has five white marbles. Mary has a charming book. 
Jonathan shot some fat birds. Diligent boys receive praise. Jane 
has a warmer room. John has the warmest room. The fire is hot ; 
the sun is hotter. Take the swiftest horse of the three. The bright 
sun shines. This day is lovely. Hear the roaring wind. The rude 
boy hurt the old man. The refreshing showers fall upon the with- 
ered grass. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is an adjective ? Into what two classes may adjectives be divided ? What 
does a qualifying adjective denote ? What does a limiting adjective show ? 

What limiting adjectives are sometimes called articles? What is the called? 
An or a ? When we use the definite article to what do we refer ? To what do we 
refer when we use the indefinite article ? 

Before what kind of sounds is an used ? Before what kind of sounds is a used ? 
Why do we say an hour? Why do we say a university, a ewe, many a one ? When 
is an used before words beginning with h not silent ? 

With nouns of what number is the used ? An or a ? 

What is the comparison of an adjective? How many degrees of comparison? 
What does the positive degree express ? What is the comparative degree ? The 
superlative ? 

How are the comparative and superlative degrees formed ? How may the same 
meaning be expressed ? Which is the usual way with adjectives of more than one 
syllable ? 

VEKBS. 

A Verb is a word by which something is affirmed; as, 
"John runs;" "Csesar was killed;" " James will study." 

The word denoting that of which something is affirmed is 
called the subject of the verb. In the preceding examples 
John, Ccesar, and James are the subjects. 

The affirmation maybe absolute; as, "I write; 11 or it maybe ex- 
pressed in the form of a condition; as, "If I ivrite ;" or of a question; 
as, "Does he write ?" or of a command, an entreaty, or a permission; 
as, "John, write. 11 (See Note I.) 

Remarks. — 1. The word verb is derived from the Latin verbum, which means a 
word. This name was given to the verb on account of its importance. 

2. There are two classes of words (grammatical hybrids, if the expression *may 
be used) which partake partly of the nature of the verb and partly of the nature of 
other parts of speech. These are the participle and the infinitive mood; the participle 
partaking of the nature of the verb and that of the adjective, and the infinitive par- 
taking of the nature of the verb and of that Of the noun. The one may be called the 
adjective-form of the verb, and the other the noun-form of the verb. An affirmation 
can not be made by means of either. These hybrid forms should not be regarded in 
giving a definition of the verb. 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the verbs and subjects in the following sentences : 

John walks. John walks fast. John walked. John has walked. 
John will walk. William reads. William reads instructive books. 
The horse gallops. The horse gallops through the wood. Caesar was 
killed. Caesar was killed by Brutus. The sun shines. The sun has 
shone. The sun will shine. The sun shines through the clouds. You 
study. You study diligently. You study your lesson diligently. Has 
Joseph come? Joseph has come. Has Joseph come home? Joseph 
has come home. Mary will learn. Will Mary learn? 

2. Put a verb in the place of each of the following blanks : 

Sarah .... her book. Harriet .... her mother. John .... his 
work. The horse .... Edward .... a rabbit. God .... just. 
A bad boy .... his parents. Ellen .... sweetly. Birds .... in 
the air. This poem .... beautiful. Paul .... an apostle. The 
man .... Margaret. Jane .... on a chair. Benjamin . ... in 
a bed. George .... a letter. Henry .... a knife. Eliza .... a 
good girl. Alexander .... Darius. Susan .... Florence. 

3. Put a subject in the place of each of the following blanks : 

.... has come wrote a letter has a sweet voice. 

. . . . have a long lesson sawed wood is wholesome. 

.... is good knits stockings has gone has 

a book recited well will come are beautiful. 

.... are tall made a bonnet. 

CLASSES OF VEEBS. 

Verbs are either transitive or intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is a verb that expresses an action 
exerted directly upon some object; as, " John struck George;" 
" George was struck by John." 

An Intransitive Verb is a verb that does not express an 
action exerted directly upon some object; as, " Peter sleeps; 19 
"Mary is good;" "The horse runs" (See Note j.) 

Remarks. — 1. The word transitive means passing over ; and verbs of this class 
are so called because the action is represented as passing over from the actor to the 
object acted upon. 

2. As the object of a transitive verb in the active voice is in the objective case, 
any verb which makes sense with me, thee, him, her, us, or them is a transitive verb. 
Thus we may know that strikes is a transitive verb by its making sense with him 
after it; as, "John strikes him ;" but "John sleeps him" does not make sense. 



VERBS. 75 

3. The same verb may be transitive in one sense and intransitive in another; 
thus, in the sentence, " He believes God," believes is transitive ; but in this sentence, 
" He believes in God," it is intransitive. 

4. Observe that if a preposition with its object immediately follows the verb in 
the active voice, the verb is not transitive. In the sentence, " He believes in God," 
the verb believes is followed by the preposition in with its object God, and the noun 
God is the object of that preposition and not of the verb. In the other sentence, 
" He believes God," there is no preposition. 

With respect to form verbs are regular or irregular* 

A verb is Regular when the past tense and the auxiliary 

perfect participle are formed by annexing ed to the imperfect 

infinitive; as, 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. PAST TENSE. AUX. PERF. PARTICIPLE. 

To trust, I trusted, trusted ; 

To hope, I hoped, hoped; 

To drop, I dropped, dropped; 

To carry, I carried, carried. 

When ed is annexed to hope, e is dropped from hope; when ed is 
annexed to drop, p is doubled; and when ed is annexed to carry, y is 
changed to i. (See General Eules for Spelling.) 

A verb is Irregular when the past tense or the auxiliary 
perfect participle is not formed by annexing ed to the imperfect 
infinitive; as, 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE PAST TENSE. AUX. PERF. PARTICIPLE. 

To write, I wrote, written ; 

To do, I did, done; 

To hear, I heard, heard; 

To say, I said, . said. 

A Defective Verb is one which wants some of its parts. 
An Auxiliary Verb is one which is used in conjugating 
other verbs. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following verbs are transitive and which intransitive, and 
name the object of each transitive verb. The words in italics are prepositions : 

Mary fed the cow. Jane broke the chair. James lies on the bed. 
The hunter shot a deer. "Whales swim in the sea. Erasmus wrote a 

-Some writers use the terms weak and strong instead of regular and irregular; 
but as every new verb introduced into the language immediately takes the termina- 
tion ed, it is certainly proper to call this the regular way and the verb a regular verb. 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 

letter. The tailor spoiled the coat. Emma remained in the house. 
Anna spoke to her. The pen fell from his hand. John went to 
town. The servant broke the plate. 

The horse has gone into the stable. He has eaten the corn. The 
dog caught the raccoon. Robert looked at me. Smoke rises in the air. 
He sharpens knives. The sun has parched the earth. The boy waits 
for her. A tiger will attack a man. The serpent crushed the tiger. 
The bird sat on the fence. 

Brutus killed Caesar. Mummius destroyed Corinth. God created 
the world. Washington commanded the army. Birds fly through the 
air. He stepped into the water. The good man avoids vice. The boy 
fell over the bench. She confessed her sins. He walked in the mud. 
He ran up the hill. 

The mother loves her babe. The oxen draw the wagon. He owes 
twenty dollars. I have some money. The boy turns the wheel. He 
possesses a large estate. The boy turns to the fire. I see John. I see 
through his plans. I met him. I met with a misfortune. This book 
cost ten dollars. 

2. Put a transitive verb in the place of each of the following blanks : 
William .... his parents. James .... the cow. Ella .... her 

lesson. That man .... money. We .... a book. God .... us. 
The robber .... the traveler. The dog .... the squirrel. That 
man .... sin. Jane .... black eyes. Augustus .... the noise. 
Thomas .... his desk. He .... virtue. The clouds .... the sky. 
Samuel .... music. Edward Smith .... knife. I . . . . James 
Thomson. They .... a house. 

3. Put an intransitive verb in the place of each of the following blanks : 

The dog . ... on the grass. Time .... swiftly. He .... into 
the water. Benjamin .... into the house. She .... for a change. 
We . ... on the grass. John .... diligently. Mary .... sweetly. 
Horses .... Henry .... far. God .... good. She .... happy. 
The book . ... on the table. Susan . ... to town. She . ... at 
me. Serena .... with me. 

4. The following verbs are in the past tense; tell whether they belong to 
regular or irregular verbs : 

Jane wrote a letter. Edmund had a book. James found a dollar. 
I saw an elephant. Mary took my book. That man was here. The 
boys heard a noise. Eugenia said so. He lay on the grass. I gave 
it to him. Thomas did so. Stephen ran very fast. William drank 
some water. The tree bore fruit. The dog caught the fox. The man 
lost his way. I spent a dollar. 



VERBS. 77 

PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 

To verbs belong voice, mood, tense, number, and person. 

VOICE. 

Voice is a property of transitive verbs founded on the 
relation of the subject to the action. 

There are two voices, the active and the passive. 

When the word denoting the actor is the subject the verb 
is in the Active Voice; as, "Brutus killed Caesar. " 

When the word denoting the object acted upon is the sub- 
ject the verb is in the Passive Voice; as, "Csesar was 
killed by Brutus." 

The two expressions, "Brutus killed Caesar" and "Caesar was killed 
by Brutus,'"' convey the same idea; but in the former the attention is 
directed to Brutus as performing the action, in the latter to Caesar as 
affected by the action. In the former the subject Brutus is active, in 
the latter the subject Csesar is passive. 

Any sentence containing a transitive verb in the active voice may 
be so altered as to convey the same sense with the verb in the passive 
voice. 

That which is the object in the active becomes the subject in the 
passive; and the subject of the active is put in the objective case after 
the preposition by. Thus, "The dog bit the cat" may be changed into 
"The cat was bitten by the dog." 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Mummius destroyed Corinth; Corinth was destroyed by Mummius. 
Caesar defeated Pompey ; Pompey was defeated by Caesar. 

God governs the world; The world is governed by God. 

Remarks.— 1. Some make passive verbs a distinct class. But the passive voice 
is a form which every transitive verb may assume and should be considered merely 
a modification. In both voices there are the same two things regarded in connection 
with the action, namely, the actor and the object acted upon; and the distinction of 
voice arises from the particular way in which these two'things are presented. 

2. The word passive is derived from a Latin word which means to suffer; and the 
name is given to this form because the subject is represented as suffering or under- 
going the action. 

3. When the active voice is used the object may be omitted ; thus we may say, 
"Peter reads," without affirming whether he reads a book, a newspaper, or a letter. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

When the passive is used the name of the agent may be omitted ; thus we may say, 
" The book is read," without declaring by whom. 

4. It is convenient to use this form when we do not know or do not wish to name 
the agent ; as, " My pen has been spoiled." The same idea, however, may be repre- 
sented, though not so well, by the active with an indefinite subject ; as, " Somebody 
has spoiled my pen." » 

5. The passive is sometimes used merely to give variety, when the active would 
express the meaning as well. 

6. An intransitive verb can not be used in the passive form, since it has no 
object in the active to become the subject of the passive. But intransitive verbs 
followed by prepositions are sometimes treated as if they formed with the prepo- 
sition a compound verb, which, being transitive, is used in the passive, the object 
of that which is the preposition in the active voice becoming the subject of the 
passive. Thus, to smile is intransitive, and we can not say, "He was smiled by 
her;" but we may say, "She smiled on him;" "He was smiled on by her." 

7. Some would call on an adverb in the passive form, but not correctly; was 
smiled on should be considered a compound verb, for the passive is used only because 
smiled on in the active is treated as a transitive verb. In parsing the active, however, 
we should parse the words as they are — smiled as an intransitive verb and on as a 
preposition. 

8. Sometimes even a verb, a noun, and a preposition are treated as a compound 
verb and used in the passive voice ; as, " His character was lost sight of in that trans- 
action." " The cakes were done liberal justice to." — Sir W. Scott. 

9. Intransitive verbs are sometimes followed by the objective case of a noun of 
kindred signification to their own, and this objective may become the subject of the 
passive ; as, " John ran a race ;" " A race was run by John." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the following sentences so as to convey the same meaning with the 
verb in the passive voice : 

Active Voice. — " Columbus discovered America." 
Passive Voice. — "America was discovered by Columbus." 

Columbus discovered America. Washington commanded the army. 
God created the world. The wind shakes the tree. Nero burned Rome. 
Brutus loved Portia. Dissipation will ruin him. Water allays thirst. 
Time changes all things. He will deceive you. The mowers have cut 
the grass. Virtue produces happiness.. The smith made the shoe. 
Thomas had seen Emma. 

2. Change the following sentences so as to convey the same meaning with the 
verb in the active voice : 

Passive Voice. — "A beautiful light is given by the moon." 
Active Voice. — "The moon gives a beautiful light." 

A beautiful light is given by the moon. Pompey was defeated by 
Caesar. An oration was delivered by Cicero. The plant was killed by 
the sun. Parents should be honored by their children. That book was 



VERBS. 79 

torn by the dog. Constantinople was taken by the Turks. Italy was 
invaded by the barbarians. The wheat will be injured by the rain. 
The state had been conquered by a tyrant. 

3. Which of the following verbs are in the active voice, and which in the 
passive voice? 

Anne cut the thread. The thread was cut by Anne. George split 
the wood. The wood was split by George. The boy read the book. 
The book was read by the boy. The man shot the squirrel. Thomas 
sees us. The horse kicked the cow. The horse was kicked by the cow. 
The cow was kicked by the horse. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. The 
horse eats the corn. 

John reads. The book was read. Thomas will write. The letter 
was written. My coat was torn. We have been deceived. Mary will 
recite. The lesson has been recited. 

MOODS. 

Moods are different modes of expressing the action or state. 
There are four moods; namely, the indicative, the impera- 
tive, the infinitive, and the participle, or participial mood. (See 

Note K.) 

The Indicative Mood is used to express direct assertion 
and interrogation; as, "I walk;" " I can walk;" "Dolivalkf" 
"Can I walk?" 

The Imperative Mood is used to express command, exhor- 
tation, entreaty, or permission; as, "Study your lesson;" "Obey 
your parents;" "Save my child;" "Go in peace." 

The Infinitive Mood partakes of the nature of the verb 
and of that of the noun; as, "To play is pleasant;" "John 
loves to ivalk." 

Here to play expresses action, like the verb, and forms the subject 
of the verb is, like a noun. 

The Participle partakes of the nature of the verb and 
of that of the adjective; as, "I see a man cutting wood;" 
"She died lamented by all." 

Here cutting expresses action, like a verb, and belongs to the noun 
man, like an adjective. Lamented expresses action received, like a 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 

verb in the passive voice, and it belongs to the pronoun she, like an 

adjective. 

Remarks.— 1. The modes of expressing the action or state are almost unlim- 
ited, and some grammarians have made a large number of moods. We read of the 
declarative mood, the definitive, the rogative, the interrogative, the requisitive, the per- 
contative, the assertive, the vocative, the p+ecative, the deprecative, the responsive, the 
concessive, the permissive, the optative, the potential, the dubitative, the conjunctive, the 
subjunctive, etc. It is possible for a language to exist with a peculiar form for each 
different mode of expressing the. action or state; but no language has so great a 
number. Grammar is concerned with those modes only that are represented by 
peculiar forms. 

2. The indicative mood may be employed in propositions expressing conditions, 
suppositions, and other things which are not direct assertions; as, "If he has 
money he will pay you." But here the condition is expressed, not by the form 
of the verb has, but by the conjunction if. The verb itself expresses a direct asser- 
tion, " he has money ;" the word if making the proposition equivalent to " grant this 
fact which the verb asserts, he has money." 

3. With the second person of the imperative mood the subject is generally 
understood ; as, " Depart." Here the subject you is understood. But when the 
imperative takes the first or the third person the subject is expressed. (See 
page 95.) 

4. The infinitive mood is usually accompanied by the sign to; as, " He wishes to 
learn." But after certain verbs, among which are may, can, must, might, could, would, 
and should, the simple form (without to) is used ; as, " I can learn;" " I may learn ;" 
" I could learn." 

5. The infinitive mood takes its name infinitive (not limited) from the fact that it 
is not limited to a subject. To distinguish them from verbs in this mood, verbs in 
the indicative and imperative are called finite verbs. The participle also is not 
limited. 

6. The infinitive sometimes takes a subject, as will be noticed hereafter ; but in 
this use it loses its distinctive character. 

7. The participle derives its name from the Latin participo, to partake, and is so 
called because it is a form of the verb that partakes of the properties of the adjective. 
Some make of the participle a separate part of speech ; but it has no greater claims 
to this distinction than the infinitive mood has. They are both participles in the 
etymological sense of the term ; the one being a verbal form partaking of the nature 
of the adjective, the other a verbal form partaking of the nature of the noun. 

8. A participle denotes an action or state, and is transitive or intransitive ; and 
when transitive is used in the active and passive voices; but it can not be so used as 
to express an affirmation. Like an adjective it belongs to a noun ; as, " I see a man 
cutting wood." Here cutting denotes an action, is in the active voice, and has an 
object like a transitive verb ; and it belongs to the noun man like an adjective. 

9. Participles are intermediate between verbs and adjectives, as zoophytes are 
between animals and vegetables. Lord Bacon gives the name participle to those 
productions which seem to form a connecting link between the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms. "The participles or confiners between plants and living creatures are 
such chiefly as are fixed and have no local motion of remove, though they have a 
motion in their parts. . . . There is a fabulous narration that in the northern 
countries there should be an herb that groweth in the likeness of a lamb and feedeth 
upon the grass in such sort as it will bare the grass round about."— Natural History, 
page 609. 



VERBS. 81 



THE GERUND, OR PARTICIPIAL NOUN. 

The gerund, or participial noun, has the same form with the parti- 
ciple in ing; but it is a noun, like the infinitive, while the participle 
is an adjective; as, "He commenced playing" = "He began to play;" 
"He delights in playing."* 

The gerund, like the infinitive, may be modified as the finite 
verb is modified, by adverbs, by the objective case, by the predicate- 
nominative, etc.; as, "He is engaged in studying arithmetic;" "By 
coming suddenly upon them I frightened them." 

Gerunds may have compound forms ; as, "After having studied so 
diligently you must know your lesson;" "Was he made better by 
being persecuted?" 

Remarks. — 1. It is probable that the gerund has been formed from the Anglo- 
Saxon infinitive in an. This at a later period became en, and the gerund in ing is at 
this day pronounced by the great mass of people as if it ended in en.\ The termi- 
nation en was afterward changed to ing, an ending borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon 
verbal noun in ung, ing. 

2. " Some modern grammarians will have it, that a participle governed by a 
preposition is a 'participial noun;'' and yet, when they come to parse an adverb or 
an objective following it, their 'noun' becomes a 'participle' again, and not a 'noun.' 
To allow words to dodge from one class to an other, is not only unphilosophical, but 
ridiculously absurd. Among those who thus treat this construction of the participle, 
the chief, I think, are Butler, Hart, Weld, Wells, and S. S. Greene." — Goold Brown, 
"Grammar of English Grammars,''' p. 633. 

It is not probable that any of the persons mentioned has made the participial 
noun "dodge" in this "ridiculously absurd" way. The doctrine in "Butler's 
Practical Grammar" is that the participial noun is a noun like the infinitive and 
that it may be modified as the infinitive is modified. But Mr. Brown could never 
understand the participial noun. He scarcely ever mentions it without blundering 
into a condemnation of some of the most common idioms of the language, simply 
because he confounds the noun with the adjective. 

* " It is to be observed also that in English there are two infinitives, one in ing, 
the same in sound and spelling as the participle present, from which, however, it 
should be carefully distinguished ; for example, ' Rising early is healthful,' and 'It 
is healthful to rise early,' are equivalent. Grammarians have produced much need- 
less perplexity in speaking of the participle in ' ing ' being employed so and so ; 
when it is manifest that that very employment of the word constitutes it to all 
intents and purposes an infinitive, and not a participle. The advantage of the 
infinitive in ing is that it may be used in the nominative or in any oblique case." — 
Whately's Logic: Book IL, chap, i, sec. 3. 

tls this pronunciation a remnant of "the ancient speech"? We often see it 
stated that the uneducated "clip off their g's" and say in for ing; but the sound 
represented by ng is a simple sound, and there is no such thing as "clipping off 
the g " from it. If we say in for ing, we exchange one simple sound (ng) for another 
simple sound (n), which is neither shorter nor more easily pronounced. However, 
it is not in that is used for ing, but en, or simply n, the vowel being suppressed ; as, 
readen, readn. 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISES. 
In what mood is each of the verbs in the following exercises? 

"John ran." 
Ran is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct assertion. 

"Mary wishes to learn.' 7 

Wishes is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. 

To learn is in the infinitive mood — it partakes of the nature of 
the verb and of the noun. 

Note. — Here to learn is nsed as a noun in the objective case, the object of the 
verb wishes. 

"To study is pleasant." 

To study is in the infinitive mood — it partakes of the nature of the 
verb and of the noun. 

Note. — Here to study is used as a noun in the nominative case, the subject 
of the verb is. 

" William is studying." 

Studying is a participle — it partakes of the nature of the verb and 

of the adjective. 

Note. — Here studying belongs to the noun William, like an adjective. 

"John can read." 

Can is a verb in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. 

Read is in the infinitive mood, to being omitted after can — it par- 
takes of the nature of the verb and of the noun. 

Note.— Here read is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the verb 
can. The original meaning of the word can is to know. John knows what? He 
knows to read." 

"William should study." 

Should is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. 

Study is in the infinitive mood, to being omitted after should — it 
partakes of the meaning of the verb under the form of a noun. 

Note. — Here study is used as a noun in the objective case, the object of the verb 
should. Should study is equivalent to owes to study. William owes what ? He owes 
to study. 

"He may see me if he wishes." 

Wishes is in the indicative mood — it is used to express a direct 
assertion. 

"The pupil is not expected to enter into these details. The notes are given 
merely to illustrate the general principle. 



VERBS. 83 

Note.— The clause if he wishes expresses a supposition by means of the conjunc- 
tion if; but he wishes expresses a direct assertion. 

"Kun, John." 
Run is in the imperative mood — it is used to express a command. 

"Come you in peace?" 

Come is in the indicative mood — it is used to express an interro- 
gation. 

[ Observe that the infinitive is usually preceded by the sign to, except after may, 
can, must, might, could, would, and should. The participial mood may be called simply 
the participle. Most participles end in ing or ed.] 

John ran. Peter jumped. The bird sings. George saw a lion. 
Mary wishes to learn. Jane desires to study. William ought to 
study. William should study. William must study. William is 
studying. The child learns to talk. John can read. The bird is 
singing. He died respected by all. The child is talking. To study 
is pleasant. 

If you sin, you must suffer. Orlando took my pen, though I wanted 
it myself. I would study, if I had my book. I must go, though it 
rains. He may go, though you must stay. If he saw you, he would 
speak to you. He should not touch the watch, unless his father gives 
him permission. He may see me, if he wishes. 

Kun, John. William, study. Mary, come to me. Children, obey 
your parents. Strive to excel. Cease to do evil. Learn to do well. 
O, save my life ! Stay with me to-day. Robert, play with me. You 
must not play now. Robert, I wish you would play with me. Love 
and honor your mother. 

Come you in peace? Can you read? Must you go? Should you 
know him if you should see him ? May I read this book ? Could he 
fail if he should attempt it? Where is Thomas? Is "he there? Have 
you my pen? Know you the land where the citrons bloom? 

James is writing. Mary is sewing. Defeated and betrayed, the 
man became weary of life. The rain is falling where they lie. I see 
a man coming through the gate. Deserted at his utmost need, on the 
cold ground he lies. James, are you reading? Though I am reading, 
I hear you. 

Love not sleep, lest thou shouldst come to poverty. Take heed, lest 
some one may deceive you. If thine enemy should hunger, feed him. 
Love not sleep, lest thou [here the verb shouldst, on which the infini- 
tive come depends, is omitted] come to poverty. Take heed, lest some 
one deceive you. If thine enemy hunger, feed him. Make hay while 
the sun shines. 



84 ETYMOLOGY. 

TENSES. 

Tenses are modifications of the verb to denote the relation 
of the event to time. 

There are three divisions of time ; the present, the past, and 
the future. 

In each division there are two tenses, one of which denotes 
the occurrence of the event in the division of time referred to, 
the other denotes the event as perfect, that is, as having already 
taken place, in the time. 

Thus we have six tenses, which are named as follows : 



PRESENT TIME. 

1. Present Tense, as, "I write." 

2. Present-perfect Tense, as 



PAST TIME. 

1. Past Tense, as 

2. Past-perfect Tense, as 

FUTURE TIME. 

1. Future Tense, as 

2. Future-perfect Tense, as 



I have written." 



"I wrote." 

"I had written." 



"I shall write." 

"I shall have written.' 



FORMATION OF THE PERFECT TENSES. 

I have is the present tense of the verb to have; I had is the past 
tense, and / shall have the future tense of the verb to have. Written 
is the auxiliary perfect participle of the verb to write. 

The perfect tenses are composed of the present, past, and future 
tenses of the verb to have and the auxiliary perfect participle of the 
principal verb, which in the present instance is to write. The tense of 
the verb to have points out the time, and the perfect participle denotes 
the completion of the action. Thus, 



TENSE OF THE VERB TO HAVE. PARTICIPLE. COMPOUND TENSE. 

[Pointing out the time.] [Denoting the completion.] [Formed of the two.] 

Present, I have .... . Perfect, written 

Past, I had Perfect, written 

Future, I shall have . . Perfect, written 



I have written. 

I had written. 

I shall have written. 



Remarks. — 1. Strictly speaking, present time is merely the point at which the 
past and the future meet ; and if we take the smallest imaginable portion of time 
for the present, this portion will contain some of the past and some of the future. 



VERBS. 85 

Thus, if we assume this hour as the present time, part of the hour is past and part 
is to come ; so if we take this minute or this second. But we may take any portion 
of time — a day, a year, a century — and consider the whole of it as constituting 
present time and the rest of time as past and future. Thus, " I am writing this 
moment;''' " I have written a letter to-day;" " Many great works have been written in 
this century;" "A great change has taken place since the birth of Christ." In the last 
example the whole period from the birth of Christ, including the moment of speaking, 
is taken as present time. "Many earthquakes have occurred since the creation." 
Here the creation is the beginning of the time which is assumed as present. 

2. The past tenses and the future tenses of themselves denote no particular por- 
tion of past time and future time. " I wrote" expresses an action which may have 
been performed in the last hour or the last year. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What division of time is referred to in each of the following sentences? 
[Remember that the time may be present though the action is completed.] 

I walked yesterday. I walk to-day. I have walked twenty miles 
to-day. I will walk to-morrow. I am writing a letter. I wrote a 
letter yesterday. I have written two letters to-day. I will write three 
letters to-morrow. 

Csesar defeated Pompey. Washington commanded the army. The 
river overflowed its banks. The summer has now come. The summer 
has come. Summer is here. The clouds have disappeared. He rode 
yesterday. He is riding to-day. She will study well. 

Many philosophers have lived since the time of Bacon. You had 
written your letter before dinner. Many discoveries have been made 
during the present century. God loves good men. Time destroys all 
things. Good children obey their parents. 

2. With each of the following auxiliary perfect participles form a present- 
perfect, a past - perfect, and a future - perfect tense. [ Remember that with the 
participle I have forms the present-perfect I had, the past-perfect, and I shall have 
the future-perfect.] 

Written, walked, jumped, studied, learned, caught, done, returned, 
been, sailed, begun, fallen, dined, known, seen, come, gone, loved. 

A Fuller View of the Tenses. 

The Present Tense expresses what takes place in present 
time; as, "I love; I am loved." 

The Present-perfect Tense represents an action or state 
as perfect or completed in present time; as, "I have walked 
to-day;" "John has studied this week;" "Many excellent 
works have been written during this century." 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

The Past Tense expresses what took place in past time ; 
as, "I wrote a letter yesterday;" "God created the world;" 
"Caesar ivas hilled by Brutus." 

The Past-perfect Tense represents an action or state as 
perfect or completed at some past time referred to; as, "I had 
written the letter when he arrived;" "The ship had sailed 
before he reached Boston." 

The Future Tense expresses what will take place here- 
after; as, "George will go to Chattanooga, and I shall see 
him there." 

The Future-perfect Tense represents an action or state 
as perfect or completed at some future time; as, "I shall have 
dined at one o'clock." 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES. 

In the active voice same as the simple form of 
the infinitive; after thou est is annexed to the 
simple form ; after a word in the third person s 
is annexed. 
In the passive voice, am, are, art, and is, with the 
passive participle. 
Present-perfect, . Have, hast, and has. 

In the active voice of regular verbs ed is annexed 

to the simple form ; after thou edst. 
In the passive voice, was, wast, and were, with the 
passive participle. 
Past-pereect, . . . Had and hadst. 

Ptjture, Shall, will, shalt, and wilt. 

Euttjre-perfect, . Shall have, will have, shalt have, and wilt have. 

EXAMPLES. 

r Active — I follow (infinitive, to folloiv), thou fol- 

_ lowest, he follows, we follow. 

Present < 

I Passive — I am followed, thou art followed, he is 



Present, 



Past, 



followed, we are followed. 



r Active — I have followed, thou hast followed, he 
Present-pereect, i has followed. 

I Passive — I have been followed. 



VEEBS. 87 

r Active — I followed, thou followedst, he followed. 
Past, ■{ Passive — I was followed, thou wast followed, we 

I were followed. 

r Active — I had followed, thou hadst followed, he 
Past-perfect, . . \ had followed. 

I Passive — I had been followed. 

r Active — I shall follow, thou wilt follow, he will 
Future, ] follow. 

L Passive — I shall be followed, thou wilt be followed. 

r Active — I shall have followed, thou wilt have 
Future-perfect, \ followed. 

I Passive — I shall have been followed. 

Note. — The passive voice has not the participle in ing. "I am following" is 
not passive. 

Remarks. — 1. An existing custom or general truth may be expressed by the 
present tense; as, "Thomas visits me every day;" "Time and tide wait for no 
man;" "Vice produces misery." 

2. The past tense may express a past custom, and the future tense a future 
custom ; as, « Thirty steeds, both fleet and wight, 

Stood saddled in stable day arid night, 

A hundred more fed free in stall — 

Such was the custom in Branksome Hall." 

" The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the 
kid ; " "And the lion shall eat straw like the ox." 

3. In animated narration the present tense is sometimes used to express past 
events, the speaker being supposed to become so much interested that the events 
seem to be passing before him ; as, 

" What sounds upon the midnight wind 
Approach so rapidly behind ? 
It is, it is the tramp of steeds ; 
Matilda hears the sound, she speeds, 
Seizes upon the leader's rein." 

4. The present and present-perfect tenses may be employed in speaking of an 
author long since dead when we refer to the works which are still in existence; as, 
" Virgil imitates Homer ; " " Virgil has imitated Homer." " Milton has written some 
noble works in prose as well as in verse." Here we refer not to the act of writing 
but to Milton's character as a writer, as shown in the works which still exist. But 
if the works did not remain, we should say, " Milton wrote;" and even though the 
work is still extant, if we refer to the act of writing, we use the past tense ; as, 
"Milton wrote Paradise Lost." 

5. The present and present-perfect tenses are sometimes used in subordinate 
propositions to express future events, chiefly after when, as soon as, till, after, before, 
and after relative pronouns ; as, " I shall see him when he comes,''' that is, shall have 
come; "I will go when the sun rises" that is, shall have risen; "You will not see 
clearly till daylight appears;" " I shall receive a letter after the mail arrives;" " He 
will kill every one whom he meets;" " I will go when John has risen;" "You will not 
see clearly till daylight has appeared." 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

6. In such expressions the present is used to denote the action or state abso- 
lutely without reference *to time. Thus, " I shall receive a letter after the mail 
arrives" means "I shall receive a letter after the arrival of the mail;" "I will go 
when the sun rises" means " I will go at the rising of the sun." 

7. This use of the present can not be explained on the ground that the present 
denotes "the relative time of a future event," that is, a future event present (going 
on) at the time of some other future event ; for the arrival of the mail is assumed to 
take place before the reception of the letter. The use of the present-perfect, how- 
ever, may be explained in this way ; as, " I shall receive a letter after the mail has 
arrived." 

8. To understand the distinction between the past tense and the present-perfect 
tense it is necessary to avoid confounding the time and the action. Each of these 
tenses denotes a past action; but with the present-perfect tense the time is assumed 
to be present, while with the past tense the time is regarded as past. At the close 
of the week, for instance, an account of what John did on Monday may be given 
in either the past tense or the present-perfect. We may say, "John studied last 
Monday," regarding the time as past ; or we may say, speaking of the same event, 
"John has studied this week," taking the whole week as present. A very old man 
may say, " I have been young," because his whole life is regarded as present time. 
When he says, " I was once young," he separates his youth from the succeeding 
portion of his life and consequently employs the past tense. In short, the present- 
perfect tense is never used unless the time is regarded as present. One who has just 
met his friend may say, " I have seen my friend ;" but if he uses any expression that 
separates the time from the present by the smallest imaginable interval, he can no 
longer employ the present-perfect tense. . He does not say, " I have seen my friend a 
moment ago," but I saw my friend a moment ago." When we say, "John walked 
to-day," we refer to a portion of the day which has expired. (See Note L.) 

9. In conditions or suppositions the past form sometimes refers to present time ; 
as, " If I had a pen now I would write." In this sense the verb implies that the 
thing supposed does not exist. " If I have a pen," leaves it uncertain whether I have 
a pen or not. The English language having but two simple tenses, the present and 
the past, and the present being employed in conditions implying present uncertainty, 
the past was from necessity taken to express suppositions implying the present 
non-existence of the thing supposed. The difficulty could not have been avoided 
by taking one of the tenses formed by .the aid of auxiliaries ; for the auxiliary itself 
is in either the present or the past tense. 

10. The verb to be has, in the singular number, a distinct form in expressions of 
this kind, when reference is made to present time ; thus, " If I were, if thou wert, 
if he were," instead of "If I was, if thou wast, if he was."* The plural has no 
distinct form. 

11. Were is often used instead of would be, or should be, and had when employed as 
an auxiliary, instead of would have, or should have; as, " The city were ruined by such 
a course ;" " James's fortitude had been laudable had he persisted in his first inten- 
tion;" " The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labors, had it been 
early, had been kind." 

12. The past tense of other verbs is sometimes improperly used in the same way 
as were; as, "Such a policy, while it gladdened the hearts of the poor, would in ten 
years cause a greater advance in the wealth," etc. — Princeton Review. Here gladdened 
is used instead of would gladden. 

* These forms were formerly used promiscuously, at least in the second person ; 
as, "Before the heavens thou wert." — Milton. The two forms had their origin in 
two different dialects of the Anglo-Saxon language. 



VERBS. 89 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the place of each of the following blanks put a verb in the tense indicated 
at the beginning of each paragraph : ( See " Signs of the Tenses.") 

Present Tense. (Simple form of the verb, etc.) 

I . . . . We .... They .... Boys .... He ... . John 
.... Mary .... Thou .... You .... Girls .... We .... 
She .... It ... . They .... Horses .... Cows .... The 
dog .... The cat .... rats. Rain .... from the clouds. O Lord, 

thou my prayer. John .... James. Thou .... thyself. 

We .... flowers. 

Present-perfect Tense. (Have, has, etc.) 

I .... a letter to-day. George .... his task. I . . . . my friend 
this week. The cat .... a rat. James .... a snake. O Lord, 
thou ... . my prayer. Mary .... the book. Thou .... thyself. 
You .... your bonnet. Bad company .... him. I . . . . twenty 
miles to-day. The cow .... the corn. 

Past Tense. (In regular verbs ending in ed.) 

He .... my advice. She .... the invitation. I .... a letter 
yesterday. Alexander .... Darius. I . . . . my friend last week. 
The pupil .... his task yesterday. Your friend .... the book. 
The cat .... a rat. The girl .... a snake. Brutus .... Caesar. 
You .... your bonnet. Washington .... the army. He . . . all 
his money. I . . . . twenty miles yesterday. The cow .... the 
corn. Bad company .... him. 

Past-pereect Tense. (Had, etc.) 

I .... a letter before you arrived. This boy . . : . his task when 
you began yours. Your sister .... the book before you saw it. He 
deceived me then, and he ... . me before. I . . . . ten miles at six 
o'clock. The sun .... when we walked out. The cow .... the 
corn before the man saw her. He .... all his money when his 
friend met him. 

Future Tense. (Shall, will, etc.) 

I .... a letter to-morrow. I . . . . my friend next week. The 
cat .... a rat. George .... his task to-morrow. You .... your 
bonnet. The gardener .... a snake. The servant .... the book. 
Bad company .... him. The cow .... the corn. He .... all 
his money. I . . . . twenty miles to-morrow. 

8 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

Future-perfect Tense. (Shall have, will have, etc.) 

I . . . . my letter before the mail arrives. My brother .... the 
book before the bell rings. They .... their task at one o'clock. The 
sun .... when we return. He .... all his money before his friend 
meets him. When we next meet we .... three times. 

2. In what tense is each of the following verbs ? 

He loves truth. She hates deception. I saw your brother yesterday. 
He will return to-morrow. The boy recited his lesson yesterday. My 
little girl has recited her lesson to-day. The laborer has read the book. 
This man rides often. Important events have occurred in this century. 
Bonaparte was sent to Elba. Peace brings happiness. Bad company 
will have ruined him before he learns prudence. "War brings misery. 
I will assist you. 

Darius was defeated by Alexander. Spring will return. We shall 
have dined at one o'clock. He will have gone before two o'clock. He 
has completed his task. Caesar was killed by Brutus. I had written 
my letter before you commenced yours. I shall see him to-morrow. 
Thou, wilt be rebuked. Thou hast been deceived. The work had been 
completed when I met you. 

Tenses in the Different Moods. 

The indicative mood is the only one that has the six tenses. 

The imperative mood has but one tense,, which is generally 
called the present, in reference to the time of giving command ; 
though the action is, of course, to be performed after the time 
of speaking; as, "Cut the wood." In parsing the imperative 
it is not necessary to say any thing about tense. 

The infinitive has two forms or tenses, which are called the 
imperfect and the perfect; as, "To learn, to have learned" 

The imperfect (sometimes called the present) of the infinitive does 
not refer to any particular time, but denotes an action or state not 
completed at the time referred to by the verb with which it is con- 
nected. It may be joined with any tense of the verb; as, "I wish 
to write;" "I wished to write;" "I shall wish to write." 

The perfect denotes an action as completed in reference to the 
time of the verb with which it is connected; as, "He is said to have 
written;" "He was said to have written;" "He will be said to have 
written." 

As these forms refer only to the continuance or completion of the 
action, imperfect and perfect are the appropriate names. 



VERBS. 91 

The participle has three forms or tenses in the active voice, 
and three in the passive. 

Each voice has the imperfect and the perfect participle. The 
active voice has also the auxiliary perfect participle, and the 
passive voice has the passive participle. 

The Imperfect Participle denotes the continuance of the 
action or state; as, "John is cutting wood;" "Being loved by 
all, Alice is happy." 

The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of the 
action or state; as, "Saving cut the wood, he is making a 
fire;" "TI13 wood having been cut, he will make a fire." 

In the example, "John is cutting wood," the action is represented as 
imperfect or continuing; in "Having cut the wood" the action is repre- 
sented as perfect or completed. 

The Passive Participle merely denotes that the object 
to whose name it belongs is acted upon; as, "The wood was 
cut;" "Mary is loved." 

The Auxiliary Perfect Participle is used to aid in 
forming the perfect tenses; as, "I have loved;" "The wood 

has been cut." 

• ». 

The passive participle and the auxiliary perfect participle are 

always alike in form. 

Remarks. — 1. The imperfect infinitive may be known by the sign to before the 
simple form of the verb ; as, to love. The perfect may be known by the sign to have; 
as, to have loved. 

2. The imperfect participle of the active voice always ends in ing; as,- deserting. 
In the passive voice the imperfect participle is composed of being and the passive 
participle ; as, being loved. The perfect participles may be known by the sign having ; 
as, having loved, having been loved. In regular verbs, the passive and auxiliary 
perfect participles end in ed; as, loved. 

3. The name present, which is generally given to the participle in ing, and the 
name past, which is often given to the perfect participle, are entirely inapplicable 
to these forms. Both these forms may refer to present, past, or future time. Thus, 
"I am writing;'''' "I was writing;'''' "I shall be writing;' 1 '' "Having cut the wood, he 
is making a fire;" ""Having cut the wood, he made a fire;" "Having cut the wood, 
he will make a fire." The imperfect participle denotes an action going on, and the 
perfect participle an action completed, at any time. 

4. The auxiliary perfect participle was originally the passive participle ; but it 
has now become a different thing altogether. Instead of being passive it is now 
active in sense ; and intransitive verbs, which have no passive participle, have the 
auxiliary perfect participle ; as, " I have gone, I have been, I have risen." 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

5. The term auxiliary, as applied to this participle, has no reference to the rela- 
tive importance of the verb to have and this participle, but merely denotes that this 
form is one of the elements of the perfect tense. 

6. The passive participle is often incorrectly called the perfect participle. (See 
page 91.) 

7. The signification of some verbs is such that the passive participle in some 
forms of expression denotes completed action; as, " The house is emptied;" " The 
house is built;" "The letter is written." In such instances the action can not be 
represented as received without being represented as completed. So far as the 
completion of the action is concerned, "The house is built" is equivalent to "The 
house has been built;" but the former sentence denotes an existing state rather than 
a completed action. The name of the agent can not be expressed when this form 
is used to denote an existing state. Thus when we wish merely to denote the 
finished state of the house we do not say, " The house is built by John." When we 
say, " Houses are built by mechanics ;" " Every house is built by some man," we 
do not express existing states, but general truths. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the place of each of the following blanks put a word of the form indicated 
at the beginning of each paragraph : 

Imperfect Infinitive. (Sign to.) 

I wish .... I desire .... my lesson is pleasant. Ella 

expects .... to the country. Florence wishes .... German. The 
boat is expected .... at four o'clock. I hope .... you in Madison. 
Are you willing .... with us ? I am glad .... you. Thomas is 
determined not .... by any one. Anna wishes .... by all. "We 
are anxious .... home. 

Perfect Infinitive. (Sign to have.) 

The letter is supposed .... by Julius. He is believed .... his 
word. Brutus is said .... Caesar. James is known .... such things 
often. Alexander is said .... Darius. The house is believed .... 
on fire by robbers. Darius is said .... by Alexander. The wall is 
supposed .... by the Eomans. Csesar is said .... by Brutus. 

Imperfect Participle. (Active ending in ing; Passive, being.) 

John is ... . Emma is .... a book. Spring is ... . I saw 
William .... wood. She saw the bird .... its nest. The flowers 
are .... They are .... in the grove. George is .... a butterfly. 
He has left the place, . . . . by all on account of his meanness. 

Perfect Participle. {Having.) 

I will now go home, .... the elephant that book, she has 

taken another by Alexander, Darius surrendered. A heavy 

rain .... the grass begins to grow. The fort .... the general 



VERBS. 93 

entered the city. That knife .... I must get another you 

once more, I am satisfied. The dog .... a raccoon, we returned. 

That house .... we must build another. The time .... we will 
wait no longer. 

Passive Participle. (In regular verbs ending in ed.) 

Alice is .... by every one. The sloth is .... to be a very lazy 
animal. This animal is .... by Goldsmith. He was .... by the 
fall. The lesson has been .... The victory was .... by Marius. 
The work will be .... in a month. The dog should be .... to his 
owner. The apples were .... from the tree. The day was .... in 
feasting. The mob had been .... The door will have been .... 

Auxiliary Perfect Participle. (Same in form as Passive.) 

Thomas has .... his task. Emma has ... a letter. The man 
has .... from his house. Martha has .... the book. The ship 
had .... The ice has .... Robert has .... a lion. They will 
have .... the letters before dinner. I had .... mv lesson. The 
lady had .... her fan. I had .... to see you. She has .... you 
three times. John had .... to go. The crowd has .... Emma 
has .... the apple. 

2. Which of the following words are in the imperfect infinitive, and which in 
the perfect infinitive? 

I wish to see you. He promised to go with me. She intended to 

write a letter. Jane had intended to write a letter. The army was 

ordered to march. The king is supposed to have escaped in a boat. 

His army is said to have been routed. The man is thought to have 

stolen the jewels. It was her duty to obey. They were anxious to 

remain. He was commanded to cease. 

3. Which of the following words are imperfect participles, which perfect, which 
passive, and which auxiliary perfect participles ? 

James is building a house. Having mended my pen, I will write. 
The moon is shining. The horse, having eaten the corn, is now eating 
hay. The letter was written yesterday. I have neglected my studies. 
Being reviled, he reviled not again. Having torn my coat, I must 
stay at home. I shall be running while you are walking. Having 
read that book, he is waiting for another. Jane is loved. Martha 
is admired. The general died lamented by all. Virtue being lost, 
all is lost. George is reading an interesting book. 



94 ETYMOLOGY. 

NUMBER AND PERSON. 

The Number and Person of the verb are the modifications 
which it has according to the number and person of its subject. 

Thus, in the present tense, with the first person we use love, with 
the second lovest, and with the third loves; as, "I love, thou lovest, 
he loves." Here love is said to be of the first person singular, lovest of 
the second person singular, and loves of the third person singular. 
(See Note Q.) 

Remarks. — 1. Some languages have a peculiar form for every person in both 
numbers ; but in English there are not so many separate forms. The second person 
singular has a form appropriated to itself in all the tenses, and the third person 
singular has a distinct form of the verb in the present tense ; the present of the 
verb to have retaining this form when used as an auxiliary in the present-perfect. 
There is no other change in regular verbs on account of the number and person 
of the subject. 

2. The three persons in the plural are always alike, and, with the exception of 
the verb to be, the same as the first person singular. 

The infinitive mood and the participles, as they have no subject, are 
without number and person. 

Remark.— The infinitive is sometimes used as a finite verb and takes a subject; 
but it is not varied on account of the number and person of the subject. 

The imperative mood has usually only the second person; but it 
sometimes takes the other persons; as, 

u Retire we to our chamber." — Shakespeare. 

"Ruin seize thee, ruthless king! 
Confusion on thy banners wait!" — Gray. 

" Swift fly the years, and rise the expected morn." — Pope. 

"Laugh those that can, weep those that may." — Scott. 

" Thrive I as I may." — Shakespeare. 

"Commence tve now that higher state, 
Now do thy will as angels do." — Montgomery. 

"My soul, turn from them — turn we to survey." — Goldsmith. 

"... Long live the king, 
And Gilpin, long live he." — Cowper. 

"Cursed be I that did so." — Shakespeare. 

The verbs in such expressions as "Be it enacted," "Be it so," "So 
help me God," "So dp God to Abner," "Hallowed be thy name," "Thy 
kingdom come," "God above deal between thee and me," belong to the 
third person of the imperative. 



VERBS. 95 

Remarks. — 1. Instead of some of these forms it is more common to use the 
infinitive mood with the second person imperative of the verb let and the objective 
case of the noun ; as, " Let him fall ;" " Let us rest here." Let is often used in this 
way even when there is no command addressed to any one ; as, " Let there be light." 

2. The first, and third persons of the imperative are not " abridgments " of the 
forms with let, nor are they in any way derived from these forms. They are 
among the oldest forms in the language ; as, " He that hath eeris of herynge hear 
he."—Wiclif. They are derived from the Anglo-Saxon subjunctive employed as an 
imperative; as, "Si thin nama gehalgod" (be thy name hallowed); "Fare we on 
tunas " (go we to the towns). 

EXERCISES. 

In what number and person is each of the following verbs ? 

I write. John writes. Thou writest. We write. They write. 
You write. You will learn. They have learned. Thou hadst learned. 
"We shall have learned. They will have learned. Mary will go. 
Thou wilt go. Eobert shall go. You will go. James had gone. 
They will come. Ella came. Susan ran. Thou hast run. 

Does John write? Dost thou write? Do we write? Do they 
write? Do you write? "Will you learn? Have they learned? "Will 
they have learned? "Will Mary go? Did Susan run? 

John does not write. Thou dost not write. They will not have 
learned. Thou hadst not learned. They will not come. Kobert shall 
not go. Thy will be done. Stay we here. Heaven protect us. God 
bless you. Be it decreed. Die thou, and die our fear. Long live she 
so, and long live you to think so. Perish the baubles ! 

CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a Verb is the regular arrangement 
of its parts, according to the voices, moods, tenses, numbers, 
and persons. 

The only regular terminations added to verbs are est, s, ed, edst, and 
ing. Thus, 

pained, painedst, paining, 

dropped, droppedst, dropping, 

loved, lovedst, loving, 

carried, carriedst, carrying. 
[See General Rules for Spelling, iii, v, and vii.] 

All other changes are made by the use of auxiliaries. 

The third person singular of the present formerly ended in eth. 
This termination is still sometimes used in the solemn style. Con- 
tractions sometimes take place; as, sayst for sayest. 

In adding s, the same changes take place that occur in forming the 
plural of nouns; as, wish, wishes; go, goes; tarry, tarries. 



Pain, 
Drop, 
Love, 


painest, 

droppest, 

lovest, 


pains, 
drops, 
loves, 


Carry, 


carriest, 


carries. 



96 ETYMOLOGY. 

The Principal Parts are the imperfect infinitive, the past 
indicative, and the auxiliary perfect participle, which is the same 
in form as the passive participle. When these are known all 
the parts of the verb may be formed by using the proper 
terminations and auxiliaries. 

In regular verbs all that is necessary to be known is the 
imperfect infinitive. 

The present indicative is the same as the imperfect infinitive with 
the sign to omitted, except in the verb to be, which has am. 

Conjugation of the Verb To Love in the Active Voice. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. PAST INDICATIVE. AUX. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Love. Loved. Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I love, 1. "We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love, 

3. He loves. 3. They love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 



VERBS. 97 

FUTURE-PEKFECT TENSE. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved. 3. They shall or will have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye, or love you. 

Complete with the less usual forms. 

1. Love I, 1. Love 

2. Love thou, 2. Love you, 

3. Love he. 3. Love they. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To love. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

IMPERFECT. PERFECT. AUXILIARY PERFECT. 

Loving. Having loved. Loved. 

Remarks. — 1. For the sake of emphasis the verb do is used as an auxiliary in 
the present and past tenses with the infinitive ; also in the imperative ; as, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

, IMPERATIVE MOOD. „, , 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Do thou love. 2. Do you love, or do ye love. 

2. Do is sometimes used when shall or should is omitted; as, "If thou do repent." 
Sometimes also when may is omitted; as, "That the shame of thy nakedness do 
not appear." — Bev. iii, 18. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following verbs: 

Attack, defeat, comprehend, interpose, learn, wish, play, follow. 

2. Name the first person singular of each tense of the indicative of the following 
verbs, the second person of the imperative, and the infinitive and the participles : 

Paint, gather, look, try, succeed, intermit, reply, multiply. 

3. In what mood, tense, number, and person is each of the following verbs ? 

I have loved. John walked. We learn. They have succeeded. 
I shall form. You have defeated. They will have completed. Learn 
thou. Thou hast waited. Ye have complied. Wait ye. I had 
expected. Thou hadst intended. George will learn. Thy will be 
done. God forbid. God do so to me. Make we our march toward 
Birnam. Ketire we to our chamber. Go we to the king. 

9 



98 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Conjugation of the Irregular Verb To Be. 



IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. 



Be. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

PAST INDICATIVE. 



Was. 



AUX. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 



Been. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

OTrmrTin PRESENT TENSE. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. We are, 

2. You are, 

3. They are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been. 



1. I am, 

2. Thou art, 

3. He is. 



1. I have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 

3. He has been. 



PAST TENSE, 



1. I was, 

2. Thou wast [or wert), 

3. He was. 



were, 



1. I 

2. Thou wert, 

3. He were. 



1. I had been, 



} 



Conditional 
Form. 



1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 

1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. We had been, 



2. Thou hadst been, 

3. He had been. 



2. You had been, 

3. They had been. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been. 3. They shall or will have been. 



VEKBS. 99 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

2. Be, or be thou, or do thou be. 2. Be, or be ye, or be you. 

Complete with the less usual forms. 

1. Be I, 1. Be we, 

2. Be thou, 2. Be you, 

3. Be he. 3. Be they. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

IMPERFECT. PERFECT. AUXILIARY PERFECT. 

Being. Having been. Been. 

Remarks. — 1. The great irregularity in the conjugation of this verb results from 
the fact that it has been derived from more than one source, one form being derived 
from one Anglo-Saxon verb, and another from a different one. Thus part of it is 
derived from wesan and part from beon, both signifying to be. Other parts are 
derived from other sources. 

2. Be and beest were formerly used in the present ; as, " We be twelve brethren." 
—Gen. xlii, 32. " There be of protestants."— Milton. " Thus much we all know and 
confess, that they be not of the highest nature." — Bacon. " If thou beest he." — Milton. 
" I think it be thine, indeed." — Shakespeare. 

3. This form of the present is sometimes, though seldom, used by modern 
authors after if, though, etc.; as, "If he be a knave, I am deceived;" that is, if 
he is. Ordinarily, when be is used after if, though, etc., it is in the infinitive, shall, 
should, etc., being understood; as, "If he be detected, he will be punished;" that 
is, if he should be. 

4. This verb has not the emphatic forms of the present and past tenses. 

5. It has been observed (p. 88) that the past tense of verbs in general is em- 
ployed in suppositions referring to present time when the thing supposed does not 
exist ; as, " If ye loved me, ye would keep my commandments ;" " If I had a pen, I 
would write." To express suppositions of this kind this verb has were and wert 
instead of was and wast. If I was refers to past time and leaves it uncertain whether 
I was or was not ; If I were refers to present time and implies that I am not ; as, " If 
I were you, I would do that." This conditional form is found in the singular number 
only, suppositions of this kind being expressed in the plural by the common form. 

Were and wert, as has been stated, belonged originally to the past tense in a 
particular dialect of the Anglo-Saxon language. Many English writers have used 
wert as the second person singular of the common past tense; as, "Before the 
heavens thou wert." — Milton. "Whate'er thou art or wert." — Byron. "Remember 
what thou wert.'"— Dry den. "I knew thou wert not slow to hear." — Addison. "All 
this thou wert." — Pope. 

6. Were is often used for would be, and had been for would have been. 

EXERCISES. 

In what mood, tense, number, and person, is each of the following verbs ? 

I have been. Be thou. He is. We shall have been. I shall be. 
Thou art. He was. They had been. Be you. We have been. Be we. 
If I were. If thou wert. 



100 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

The passive voice is formed by using the passive participle 
with the verb to be. 

Conjugation of the verb To Love in the Passive Voice. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I am loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 

3. He is loved. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



PLURAL. 

1. We are loved, 

2. You are loved, 

3. They are loved. 



PRESENT-PEREECT TENSE. 



1. I have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 

3. He has been loved. 



1. We have been loved, 

2. You have been loved, 

3. They have been loved. 



1. I was loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 

3. He was loved. 



PAST TENSE. 

1. We were loved, 

2. You were loved, 

3. They were loved. 



1. I were loved, 

2. Thou wert loved 

3. He were loved 



^,1 



Conditional 
Form. 



1. We were loved, 

2. You were loved, 

3. They were loved. 



PAST-PEREECT TENSE. 



1. I had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 

3. He had been loved. 



1. We had been loved, 

2. You had been loved, 

3. They had been loved. 



EUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. You shall or will be loved, 



2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 



3. He shall or will be loved. 



3. They shall or will be loved. 



ETJTURE-PEREECT TENSE. 



1. I shall or will have been loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loved, 

3. He shall or will have been loved. 



1. We shall or will have been loved, 

2. You shall or will have been loved, 

3. They shall or will have been loved. 



VERBS. 101 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

2. Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or be you loved. 

Complete with the less usual forms. 

1. Be I loved, 1. Be we loved, 

2. Be thou loved, 2. Be you loved, 

3. Be he loved. 3. Be they loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 



f 


fo be loved. 




To have been lovec 






PARTICIPLES. 




IMPERFECT. 


PERFECT. 




PASSIVE. 


Being 


loved. 


Having been 


loved. 


Loved. 



Remarks. — 1. The passive voice being nothing more than the verb to be with 
the passive participle, the remarks under to be apply to the passive. 

2. Certain intransitive verbs have sometimes the form of the passive voice, 
without being passive in sense : " He is gone ;" " The Lord is risen indeed." These 
do not admit after them the name of the agent with the preposition by, as transitive 
verbs in the passive voice do. 

Thus, we may say, "James is loved by John;" but not "James is gone by 
John." "James has gone," and " James is gone," both represent James as having 
done something, and not as having had something done to him. Has gone refers 
more particularly to the action of going, and is gone to the state of being absent. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following verbs in the passive voice : 
Follow, pain, admit, carry, permit, advise, examine. 

2. Name the first person singular of all the tenses of the indicative in the 
passive voice of the following verbs, the second person of the imperative, together 
with the infinitive and the participles. 

Attend, persuade, remove, instruct, convince, appease. 

3. In what voice, mood, tense, number, and person is each of the following verbs ? 
Darius was defeated. You have been deceived. I have been loved. 

They were arrested. The letter has been written. Darkness will have 
disappeared. Thou wilt be envied. The time has come. The grass 
has been cut. The mower had cut the grass. They had detected John. 
John had been detected. They will have completed the work. The 
work has been completed. Hallowed be thy name. 

Thy kingdom come. Stand we to defend our rights. "With virtue 
be we armed. Fall not that curse upon us. Rise we by morning light. 
Be this our motto. 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 

PROGKESSIVE FORM. 

The forms which denote the action or state as imperfect, 
or continuing, are composed of the imperfect participle and 
the verb to be. Thus, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I am writing, 1. We are writing, 

2. Thou art writing, 2. You are writing, 

3. He is writing. 3. They are writing. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been writing, 1. We have been writing, 

2. Thou hast been writing, 2. You have been writing, 

3. He has been writing. 3. They have been writing. 

[The pupil may go through the other tenses in the same way.] 

Remarks. — 1. Some verbs, especially such as denote affections or operations of 
the mind, in their simple forms express actions that can not be performed without 
being completely performed or actions that are in their nature continuous, and such 
verbs can not take the progressive form. "I am loving," for instance, is not good 
English. 

Among verbs of this kind are love, hate, desire, despise, respect, revere, venerate, 
hope, despair, wish, know, understand. Verbs of sensation, if they denote merely 
impressions made on the mind through the senses, can not take the progressive 
form ; but verbs of sensation which represent the sentient being as active may take 
the progressive form; as, "I see him;" "I am looking at him;" "I hear him;" 
"lam listening to him." 

2. Expressions of the same form are sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, 
" The house is building ;" " While these arrangements were making." 

3. In modern usage the same idea is often expressed in another way ; as, " What 
lies at the bottom of the question which is now being discussed everywhere?" — Dr. 
Arnold. "He struck the Count de Harcourt a violent blow as he was being led 
away." — G. P. R. James. "Mr. Pickwick's face while his tale was being read would 
have attracted the attention of any man alive." — Dickens. Being is superfluous. 

This modern form is very seldom used among writers of the highest class. The 
best writers say, " The house is building," not " The house is being built.' 1 "An act 
not less horrible was perpetrating in Eskdale." — Macaulay. "Chelsea hospital was 
building." — Id. "The nearest chapel where divine service was performing" — IcL 
"This new tragedy was acting." — Edward Everett. "The fortress was building." — 
Irving. " Which have been made or are making." — Henry Clay. 

" The house is being built " does not express what is intended ; being built denotes 
existence in the state expressed by built; as, "Our house being built, we have now a 
home." It would be better for those who are not satisfied with the well-established 
classical form to say, " The house is becoming built " — coming into the state expressed 
by built. 

4. These words in ing in such expressions as " The house is building" are really 
gerunds, or participial nouns, not participles, or verbal adjectives. A gerund merely 



VERBS. 103 

presents in the form of a noun what is denoted by the verb, and whether a gerund 
in any particular passage is active or passive in sense is determined by the context. 
In the first of the following passages from Shakespeare killing has an active, in the 
second a passive sense: "I promised to eat all of his killing;''' 1 "How scaped I 
killing when I crossed you so!" In the form under consideration the gerund has 
a passive sense. 

The gerund, whether employed in an active or in a passive sense, had originally 
the preposition on expressed before it. On became o\ which is so often used for on 
by Shakespeare, and in rapid pronunciation o' could not be distinguished from a, 
which became established as a preposition. "The house is on building'''' became 
"The house is o' building,'''' "The house is a building,'''' "The house is building;" 
building in this last form being the object of a preposition understood. Carlyle goes 
back to one of the more ancient forms when he writes, " Their gallows must even 
now be o' building." Shakespeare uses the form with the preposition a; as, " Even 
in their promise as it is a making ;" " She has been too long a talking of;" " I would 
have him nine years a killing.'''' The preposition in, which in Anglo-Saxon is another 
form of on, has been used : as, " Forty and six years was this temple in building." — 
English Bible. " Whilst these sentences are in reading." — Book of Common Prayer. 
" The preliminaries were not long in arranging." — Lever. 

No ambiguity need result from the use of such expressions as " The house is 
building." If the subject denotes something incapable of performing the act, the 
form must of course be passive in sense. No one but an advocate of the form is 
being built would think of stopping to ask, "What is the house building?" "The 
men are paying" is in itself an ambiguous expression, because men are capable 
of performing the act. Such expressions as " The man is binding," "The criminal 
is punishing," are exposed to a similar objection. In such cases some other forms 
should be employed; as, "The men are receiving their pay," " They are binding 
the man ;" " The criminal is undergoing punishment." 

5. The modern innovation was for some time confined to the present and past 
tenses; but one recent grammarian dashes "without any mitigation or remorse 
of voice " through all the tenses — " I am being smitten, I have been being smitten, 
I was being smitten, I had been being smitten, I shall be being smitten, I shall have 
been being smitten, I should be being smitten, I should have been being smitten," 
etc. — English Grammar, by C. P. Mason, B. A., Fellow of University College, London. 
When these forms shall have been admitted, or even shall have been being admitted, 
into the English language there will be an urgent demand for a new language on the 
part of several persons who will not have been being smitten with the beauties 
of the new style of English. 

EXERCISES. 
Give the progressive form of each of the following verbs : 
Learn, follow, strive, work, place, describe, beguile. 



NEGATIVE FOKM. 

In simple negation the adverb not is placed after the verb, 
or after the first auxiliary; sometimes after the object of a 
transitive verb; as, "I love not this man;" "I do not love 
you;" "I love you not" 



104 ETYMOLOGY. 

Not is placed before the infinitive and the participle; as, 
"Not -to love;" "Not loving;" and after the subject in the 
imperative mood when the subject is expressed; as, "Love 
thou not." 

The simple forms of the present and past tenses are seldom used in 
this negative form. 

EXAMPLES. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present, .... I do not love. I am not loved. 

Present-perf. . I have not loved. I have not been loved. 

Past, I did not love. I was not loved. 

Past-perfect, . I had not loved. I had not been loved. 

Future, .... I shall or will not love. I shall or will not be loved. 

Future-verf $ ^ shall or will not have I shall or will not have been 
' I loved. loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Love not, or love thou not, or do Be not loved, or be thou not loved, 
not love, or do thou not love. do not thou be loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Imperfect, . . Not to love. Not to be loved. 

Perfect,\ . . . Not to have loved. Not to have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, . . Not loving. Not being loved. 

Perfect, .... Not having loved. Not having been loved. 

Note. — The first person only is given. The pupil may name all the persons 
if it is thought necessary. 

EXERCISES. 

Conjugate the following verbs with the adverb not: 

Follow, deceive, persuade, attend, perceive, convince. 

INTEKKOGATIYE POEM. 

In interrogative sentences the subject is placed after the 
first auxiliary, or after the verb when there is no auxiliary; 
as, "Lovest thou?" "Dost thou love?" 

None but the indicative mood can be used in interrogation. 



VERBS. 



105 



EXAMPLES. 



Present, . . 
Present-perf. 
Past, .... 
Past-perfect, 
Future, . . . 
Future-perf. 



INDICATIVE 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

. Do I love? 
Have I loved? 
Did I love? 
Had I loved? 
Shall I love? 
Shall I have loved? 



MOOD. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Am I loved? 

Have I been loved? 

Was I loved? 

Had I been loved? 

Shall I be loved? 

Shall I have been loved? 



EXERCISES. 
Conjugate the following verbs in the interrogative form : 
Defeat, desert, examine, deprive, gladden, advise, persuade. 

INTEKEOGATIYE NEGATIVE FOKM. 

In interrogative negative sentences the subject is placed 
after the first auxiliary, and followed by the adverb not; if 
no auxiliary is used, the subject and the adverb follow the 
verb. 

EXAMPLES. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



ACTIVE VOICE 



Present, .... Do I not love ? 
Present-perf. . Have I not loved? 

Past, Did I not love? 

Past-perfect, . Had I not loved? 
Future, .... Shall I not love ? 
Future-perf. . Shall I not have loved ? 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Am I not loved? 

Have I not been loved? 

Was I not loved? 

Had I not been loved? 

Shall I not be loved? 

Shall I not have been loved? 



EXERCISES. 
Conjugate the following verbs in the interrogative negative form : 
Persuade, betray, deceive, envy, arm, instruct, perceive. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

An Irregular Verb is one which does not form its past 
tense and auxiliary perfect participle by adding ed. 

There are about one hundred and seventy irregular verbs, some 
of which have the past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle alike 
in form, and others have them different. 



106 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Some verbs have two forms of the past tense, or of the auxiliary- 
perfect participle, or of both. In the list the preferable forms are 
placed first; those which stand in the second place being in some 
instances almost obsolete. 

List of Irregular Verbs. 



IMPERFECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 



PAST. 



AUXILIARY PERF. PARTICIPLE. 



Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, awaked, 


awaked. 


Be, 


was, 


been. 


Bear, 


"bore, "bare, 


borne, born. 


Become, 


"became, 


become. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Beget, 


"begot, 


begotten, begot. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Bend, 


bent, bended, 


bent, bended. - 


Bereave, 


bereft, bereaved, 


bereft, bereaved. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset, 


beset. 


Bet, 


betted, bet, 


betted, bet. 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blend, 


blended, blent, 


blended, blent. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, bursted, 


burst, bursted. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave (to split),* 


clove, cleft, 


cloven, cleft. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare (to venture),! 


dared, durst, 


dared. 









* Cleave, to adhere, is regular. Clave was once used as the past tense. 
f Dare, to challenge, is regular. 





VERBS. 


IMPERFEpT OF THE INFINITIVE. 


PAST. 


Deal, 


dealt, dealed, 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


Do, 


did, 


Draw, 


drew, 


Drink, 


drank, 


Drive, 


drove, 


Dwell, 


dwelt, dwelled, 


Eat, 


ate, eat, 


Fall, 


fell, 


Feed, 


fed, 


Feel, 


felt, 


Fight, 


fought, 


Find, 


found, 


Flee, 


fled, 


Fling, 


flung, 


Fly, 


flew, 


Forbear, 


forbore, forbare. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


Freeze, 


froze, 


Get, 


got, 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


Give, 


gave, 


Go, 


went, 


Grave, 


graved, 


Grind, 


ground, 


Grow, 


grew, 


Hang* 


hung, hanged, 


Have, 


had, 


Hear, 


heard, 


Heave, 


heaved, hove, 


Hew, 


hewed, 


Hide, 


hid, 


Hit, 


hit, 


Hold, 


held, 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


Keep, 


kept, 


Kneel, 


kneeled, knelt, 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


Know, 


knew, 


Lade, 


laded, 


Lay, 


laid, 


Lead, 


led, 


Leave, 


left, 


Lend, 


lent, 


Let, 


let, 


Lie,f 


lay, 


Light, 


lighted, lit, 



107 



AUXILIARY PERF. PARTICIPLE. 

dealt, dealed. 

dug, digged. 

done. 

drawn. 

drunk. 

driven. 

dwelt, dwelled. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got, gotten. 

gilded, gilt. 

girded, girt. 

given. 

gone. 

graved, graven. 

ground. 

grown. 

hung, hanged. 

had. 

heard. 

heaved, hoven. 

hewed, hewn. 

hidden, hid. 

hit. 

held. 

hurt. 

kept. 

kneeled, knelt. 

knit, knitted. 

known. 

laden, laded. 

laid. 

led. 

left. 

lent 

let. 

lain. 

lighted, lit. 



*Hang, to take life by hanging, is generally regular, 
t Lie, to utter falsehoods, is regular. 



108 



ETYMOLOGY, 



IMPERFECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 



PAST. 



AUXILIARY PERF. PARTICIPLE. 



Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pen (to inclose),* 


penned, pent, 


penned, pent. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quitted, quit, 


quitted, quit. 


Rap, 


rapped, rapt, 


rapped, rapt. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid. 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rung, rang, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, ^ 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, rived. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. , 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, sod, 


seethed, sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved. 


shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, shrank, 


shrunk, shrunken. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, slided, 


slidden, slid, slided. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt, 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, sowed. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 



Pen, to write, is regular. 



VERBS. 



109 



IMPERFECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stay, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Strew, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, • 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wake, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Win, 

Work, 

Wind, 

Wring, 

Write, 



PAST. 

sped, speeded, 

spelled, spelt, 

spent, 

spilt, spilled, 

spun, 

spit, spat, 

split, 

spread, 

sprung, sprang, 

staid, stayed, 

stood, 

stole, 

stuck, 

stung, 

stunk, 

strewed, 

strode, 

struck, 

strung, 

strove, strived, 

strowed, 

swore, sware, 

sweated, sweat, 

swelled, 

swum, swam, 

swung, 

took, 

taught, 

tore, 

told, 

thought, 

thrived, throve, 

threw, 

thrust, 

trod, trode, 

waked, woke, 

wore, 

wove, weaved, 

wept, 

wet, wetted, 

won, 

worked, wrought, 

wound, winded, 

wrung, wringed, 

wrote, writ, 



AUXILIARY PERF. PARTICIPLE. 

sped, speeded, 
spelled, spelt, 
spent. 

spilt, spilled, 
spun. 

spit, spitten. 
split, 
spread, 
sprung, 
staid, stayed, 
stood, 
stolen, 
stuck, 
stung, 
stunk. 

strewn, strewed, 
stridden, 
struck, stricken, 
strung. 

striven, strived. 
strown, strowed. 
sworn. 

sweated, sweat, 
swelled, swollen, 
swum, 
swung, 
taken, 
taught, 
torn, 
told, 
thought, 
thrived, thriven, 
thrown, 
thrust. 

trodden, trod, 
waked. 
. worn. 

woven, weaved. 
wept. 

wet, wetted, 
won. 

worked, wrought, 
wound, winded, 
wrung, wringed. 
written. 



Remarks.— 1. In other grammars, bear, to carry, and bear, to bring forth, are set 
down as two distinct verbs, the former with the participle borne, and the latter with 
the participle born. 

Dr. Webster says, "A very useful distinction is observed by good authors, who 
in the sense of produced or brought forth write this word born; but in the sense of 
carried write it borne.'" It is true that in the sense of carried the participle is always 
written borne; but it is not true that in the sense of produced or brought forth it is 



110 



ETYMOLOGY, 



always written born. We do not say, " The tree has born fruit;" or, "The mother 
has born children;" but, "The tree has borne fruit," and "The mother has borne 
children." Born is never used in the active voice in any sense; and never in the 
passive followed by the preposition by. 

2. The participle of drink is given in some grammars drunk or drank; in others 
drank or drunk; in others drank only. Formerly drank was occasionally used as the 
participle, and it is now generally used by writers of an inferior class ; but authors 
of the first class use drunk as the participle. Such writers say, "I have drunk," not 
" I have drank;" " Toasts were drunk" and not " Toasts were drank" 

" He on honey-dew hath fed, 
And drunk the milk of paradise." — Coleridge. 
" Here he had danced and drunk until midnight."— VS. Irving. " Not at all the less 
had the one drunk no brandy." — DeQuincey. "Conachar has drunk of our cup, and 
eaten of our bread." — Sir W. Scott. "Wine is drunk, and comfits are eaten." — Id. 
" The toast is drunk with a good deal of cheering." — Dickens. "Claret equal to the 
best which was drunk in London." — Macaulay. " Odoherty's health being drunk." — 
Prof. Wilson. " I had eaten and drunk." — Sydney Smith. " He had drunk largely." — 
Thackeray. "Wine was more generally drunk than now." — Hawthorne. "Nobody 
can write the life of a man but those who have eat and drunk and lived in social 
intercourse with him."— Dr. Johnson. " I have not drunk a glass of wine for twelve 
months.' ' — Hood. 

3. Compounds generally follow the conjugation of the simple word ; as, overcome, 
overcame, overcome; outdo, outdid, outdone. 



Errors in the Use of Irregular Verbs. 

The following are some of the errors most frequently committed in 
irregular verbs: 

1. The past tense is used for the auxiliary perfect or passive par- 
ticiple; as, "I have went 11 for "I have gone; 11 "I have rose 11 for "I 
have risen. 11 The following are the verbs in the use of which this 
error is most commonly committed: 



Arise, 


Break, 


Eat, 


Go, 


Slay, 


Take, 


Awake, 


Choose, 


Fall, 


Kise, 


Speak, 


Tear, 


Become, 


Come, 


Fly, 


Hide, 


Steal, 


"Wear 


Befall, 


Drink, 


Forsake, 


Run, 


Strive, 


Weav 


Begin, 


Drive, 


Freeze, 


Shake, 


Swear, 


Write 



, "I done 11 for "I did; 11 



2. The participle is used for the past tense ; as 
"I seen 11 for " I saw. 11 The following are the verbs in the use of which 
this error is most commonly committed: Become, Begin, Come, Drink, 
Do, Run, See. 

3. The transitive verbs lag and set are often used for the intransitive 
verbs lie and sit, and the regular transitive verb raise is often used for 
the irregular intransitive verb rise; as, "He laid down" for "He lag 
down;" "He has laid down" for "He has lain down;" "He set down" 
for "He sat down;" " He has set down" for "He has sat down;" "He 
raised up " for " He rose up ;" " He has raised up " for " He has risen up." 



VEEBS, 



111 



To help the pupil to avoid these very common errors the transitive 
verb lay is conjugated by the side of the intransitive verb lie, and the 
transitive verb set by the side of the intransitive verb sit. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 



TRANSITIVE. 


INTRANSITIVE. 


TRANSITIVE. 


INTRANSITIVE. 


Hay, 


Hie; 


I set, 


I sit; 


Thou layest, 


thou liest ; 


Thou settest, 


thou sittest ; 


He lays, 


he lies; 


He sets, 


he sits ; 


We lay, 


we lie; 


We set, 


we sit ; 


You lay, 


you lie ; 


You set, 


you sit; 


They lay, 


they lie ; 


They set, 


they sit. 




PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 




I have laid, etc., 


I have lain, etc. 


I have set, etc., 


I have sat, etc. 




PAST TENSE. 




I laid, 


Hay; 


I set, 


I sat; 


Thou laidest, 


thou layest; 


Thou settest, 


thou sattest; 


He laid, 


he lay; 


He set, 


he sat; 


We laid, 


we lay; 


We set, 


we sat; 


You laid, 


you lay; 


You set, 


you sat; 


They laid, 


they lay; 


They set, 


they sat. 




PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 




I had laid, etc., 


I had lain, etc. ; 


I had set, etc., 


I had sat, etc. 




FUTURE 


TENSE. 




I shall lay, etc., 


I shall lie, etc. ; 


I shall set, etc., 


I shall sit, etc. 




EUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 




I shall have laid, 


I shall have lain ; 


I shall have set, 


I shall have sat 




IMPERATIVE MOOD. 




Lay, etc., 


lie, etc.; 


Set, etc., 


sit, etc. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
IMPERFECT. 

To lay, to lie; To set, to sit. 

PERFECT. 

To have laid, to have lain ; To have set, to have sat. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. 

PARTICIPLES. 
IMPERFECT. 

TRANSITIVE. INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE. INTRANSITIVE. 

Laying, lying; Setting, sitting. 

PERFECT. 

Having laid, having lain; Having set, having sat. 

w 

Note. — Lay, set, and raise, being transitive, require each of them an object ; as, 
" He laid the book down ;" " He laid himself down ;" " He set the child on the floor ;" 
"He raised the child up ;" " He raised himself up." 

Set is intransitive in such expressions as " The sun sets." 

EXERCISES. 
Correct the errors in the following: 

The tree was shook by the wind. He raised up from the bed. 
He set down on the sofa. "While yet young he become gray, in 
consequence of the misfortune that had befell him. He begun well, 
but did not continue as he had began. The wind Mowed down the 
tree. The apples had fell off. The branches were badly broke. 

A speaker was chose by the meeting. John come down stairs in 
great haste. After the letter had came I found it was so badly wrote 
that it could not be read. The ball was throwed over the fence. He 
had mistook the meaning of the phrase. The water is froze. I seen 
the horse run. I done it myself. The boat was ladened with sugar. 

He drunk too much water. The water was all drank up. This 
cloth is well wove. He had went away before I come. John done 
well. The bottle is broke. He seen it fall. The horses were drove to 
pasture. You have mistook him. A race was ran. Yesterday I run 
all the way to school. My shoes are almost wore out. The leaves 
of the book are tore. Somebody has took my pen. 

The sick man has arose from the bed. He has awoke already. 
They had became very ill. They had eat the peaches. The book has 
fell down. The bird has flew from the tree. He had rose before I seen 
him. The speech was well spoke. Some one has stole the ring. You 
have strove hard. He has swore not to do so. 

James laid down on the grass. He is now laying on the bed. He 
set up for some time. Mary is setting on a stool. She has set there 
a long time. Having set up for some time, the sick man is now laying 
down. He had scarcely raised up before he fainted. Kaise up from 
the floor and set on a chair. Why are you laying there? Where is 
the hen setting? She has laid down. I will lay down. You ought 
to have laid down before. Are you able to raise up ? 



VERBS. 113 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb To Take. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. PAST INDICATIVE. AUX. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Take. Took. Taken. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present, ... I take. I am taken. 

Present-perf. I have taken. I have been taken. 

Past, I took. I was taken. 

Past-perfect, I had taken. I had been taken. 

Future, ... I shall or will take. I shall or will be taken. 

Future-perf. I shall or will have taken. I shall or will have been taken. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Take, or take thou, or do thou take. Be taken, or be thou taken, etc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Imperfect, . . To take. To be taken. 

Perfect, ... To have taken. To have been taken. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, . . Taking. Being taken. 

Perfect, . . . Having taken. Having been taken. 

Aux. Perfect, Taken. Taken. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Defective Verbs are such as are remarkable for wanting 
some of their parts. The following is a list of them : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. PAST. PRESENT. PAST. PRESENT. PAST. 

Can, could; Must, .... Shall, should. 

May, might; Ought, .... "Will, would. 

.... quoth; 

Remarks. — 1. The original meaning of can is to know; as, "I can but smal 
grammere." — Chaucer. So in the past tense, 

"A few termes conde he, two or three, 
Which he had learned out of some decree."— Chaucer. 

It was not confined to the present and past tenses. Thus Chaucer says, "She 
should not con ne mowe attaine;" that is, she should not know how nor be able 
to attain. 

2. With respect to some things, to know how is to be able to do them. Thus, " I 
know how to read," and " I am able to read," convey the same idea. Hence can came 
to denote ability, while its signification of knowledge has gradually disappeared. 

10 



114 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. May had originally the signification that can now has. Thus, "I may all 
thyngis in him that comforteth me." — Wielif. 

4. It was sometimes written mowe* and was not confined to the present and past 
tenses. Thus Wielif says, "Many seeken to entre, and they schulen not mowe;" 
that is, shall not may, or be able. "Which thou shalt mowe suffre." — Chaucer. 
" Despoiled of mowing to do yvel."— Chaucer. 

5. This word now generally denotes power as granted by some one, that is, 
liberty or permission ; as, " You may go ;" that is, you have permission to go. It 
sometimes denotes a wish ; as, " May you prosper." 

6. With the perfect infinitive, and sometimes with the imperfect, it denotes 
possibility; as, " He may have written;" that is, it is possible that he wrote. "He 
may write, perhaps." Here may denotes possibility. 

7. Could and might have, in general, the same relation to can and may that should 
and would have to shall and will. (See " Should and Would," p. 123.) 

8. Must denotes necessity. When it is used to denote a past necessity a change 
is made in the verb with which it is connected ; as, " I determined to tell him, for he 
must have learned it some time or other ;" that is, he was necessitated to learn it. 

9. But this is not the usual signification of must with the perfect infinitive. " He 
must have written this letter" means it is necessary to believe that he wrote it; 
not he was compelled or necessitated to write it. 

10. When ought refers to past time a change is made in the infinitive with which 
it is connected, as in the case of must. Thus, "He ought to go" means that he is 
under obligation to go, while "He ought to have gone" means that he teas under 
obligation to go. 

11. Quoth is used only in the first and third persons of the past tense ; as, " Quoth 
I," "Quoth he." 

12. Must is not varied. The others are varied in the second person singular only. 
Can has canst and couldst or couldest ; may has mayst or mayest and mightest or mightst; 
ought has oughtest. Will as a principal verb is regular ; as, " He willed it to be so." 

13. The word beware was originally two words, the verb be and the adjective ware; 
as, "Be ye war of the sour dough of the Farisees and Saducees." — Wielif. It is 
accordingly used in those tenses only in which be occurs in the verb to be; as, 
"Beware of him;" "I will beware of him." 

14. In methinks, which is now obsolescent, thinks is used in the sense of seems, 
and me is an Anglo-Saxon dative = to me. "Methinks I hear his voice." Here 
the proposition "I hear his voice" is the subject of thinks — "That I hear his 
voice seems to me." Methought also is sometimes used; as, " Methought I saw 
my late espoused saint." — Milton. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Auxiliary Verbs are those which help to form the dif- 
ferent parts of other verbs. 

They are do, be, have, shall, and will. 
Do, be, and have are also principal verbs. 

* A fact which shows that words now in use among the common people only are 
not always corruptions is that the old form mought is still used in some places for 
might. This word occurs frequently in old writers ; thus, " Winter and summer they 
mought well fare." — Spenser. 



VEEBS. 115 

DO. 

Do is used for emphasis, also in negative and interrogative sentences 
without emphasis. Formerly it was sometimes used in simple affirma- 
tive sentences; as, "The young lions do lack." — English Bible. "False 
witnesses did rise up." — Ps. xxxv, 11. 

It is sometimes used instead of a repetition of some verb which has 
preceded; as, "He studies better than you do;" that is, than you study. 
The verb in the infinitive mood may be regarded as understood after do 
used in this way; as, "He studies better than you do study." 

BE. 

The verb to be when used as an auxiliary connects the subject and 
the participle expressing the action or state. 

HAVE. 

The use of have as an auxiliary probably originated in its being 
used to express the possession of something represented as the object 
of an action denoted by the participle; as, "I have money concealed' 1 
(by myself); "I have concealed money;" that is, money which is con- 
cealed. By degrees the idea of possession has been dropped; and the 
participle has changed its mode of signification, so that, instead of 
being passive, it is now active in sense, and instead of belonging to 
the noun, like an adjective, it now governs it in the objective case 
when it is transitive. It has become so entirely changed that intran- 
sitive verbs have this participle, though they can not have a passive 
participle. 

SHALL and WILL. 

Shall is from the Anglo-Saxon seealan, and the original meaning is 
to owe. Thus, "Agyf thaet thu me scealt," Pay what thou owest me 
[shalt me]; "Se him sceolde tyn thusend puhda," Who owed [should] 
him ten thousand pounds. Chaucer uses the word in this sense; as, 
"By the faith I shall to God;" that is, owe. 

The original meaning may still be traced in the present use of this 
word; as, "Thou shalt not kill," Thou owest, art under obligation, not 
to kill; "In the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die," 
owest, art destined, to die. So in the past tense, "Judas Iscariot which 
should betray him," was destined to betray him. Should is not used 
in this sense by modern writers. 

This signification of shall renders it appropriate in prophecies in 
which the object is to represent the event, not merely as future, but 
as destined, foreordained. Thus, "Every valley shall be exalted, and 
every hill shall be made low; and the crooked shall be made straight, 



116 ETYMOLOGY. 

and the rough places plain. And the glory of the Lord shall be 
revealed; for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it." 

This word is used to express obligation or necessity imposed upon 
one by the determination of another; as, " You shall write. Here the 
person addressed is represented as placed by the determination of the 
speaker under the necessity of performing the act. 

Will expresses will, inclination, determination; as, "He will write in 
spite of opposition;" that is, is determined. 

"What one owes, is obliged, is destined to do must be future; what 
one wills to do must also be future. In certain cases the idea of futurity 
has prevailed over the original signification of the words, and shall and 
will denote events simply as future. 

The mode of expressing simple futurity in English implies, accord- 
ing to the original meaning of the words, that the speaker is impelled 
by obligation or destiny, while others are influenced by their own will; 
and if any other than the speaker is represented as foretelling, he also 
is regarded as impelled by obligation or destiny. 

I shall be elected. 
You will be elected. 
He will be elected. 

Here the speaker employs shall in expressing what is to happen to 
himself and will in expressing what is to happen to others. 

r I shall be elected. 
You predict that -j You shall be elected. 
I He will be elected. 



Here the person addressed is represented as foretelling, and shall is 
employed in expressing what is to happen to him as well as what is 
to happen to the speaker, while will is used in expressing what is to 
happen to another. M j be e]ected? 

Shall you be elected? 
Will he be elected? 

Here we inquire concerning the belief or expectation of the person 
addressed, " Shall I be elected?" being equivalent to "Do you predict 
that I shall be elected?" Accordingly shall and will are employed as 
in the preceding forms. 

I shall be elected. 

You will be elected. 

He shall be elected. 

John will be elected. 



He predicts that 



Here the person spoken of is represented as foretelling, and shall is 
employed in expressing what is to happen to him as well as what is 



VEEBS. 117 

to happen to the speaker, while will is employed in expressing what is 

to happen to others. 

In promises, resolutions, or threats the original meaning of shall 

and will is more apparent. Will is applied to the actions or states of 

the person who is represented as promising, threatening, etc., and shall 

to those of others. T . 77 

I will write. 

You will write. 

He will write. 

Here the subject of the verb in each case represents the person who 
resolves, and will is employed in all the persons. 

I will write. 
You shall write. 
He shall write. 

Here the person speaking expresses resolution about the actions of 

others as well as his own, applying will to his own and shall to those 

of others. v . 77 ., 

r xou will write. 

You are resolved that } I shall write. 

I He shall write. 

Here the person addressed is the one who resolves ; accordingly will 
is used in the second person, and shall in the others. 

Will you write? 
Shall I write? 
Shall he write? 

Here we inquire concerning the resolution of the person addressed, 

"Shall I write?" being equivalent to "Are you resolved that I shall 

write?" Accordingly will and shall are employed as in the preceding 

forms.* -rr .,, 

("He will write. 

He is resolved that -j I shall write. 

I You shall write. 

Here the person spoken of is the one who resolves; accordingly 
will is used in the third person, and shall in the others. 

* Dr. Webster says: "Shall you gof asks for information of another's intention. 
This would make shall usurp the office of will. But it is easy to see that will you go ? 
is the form that asks for information of another's intention. The answer to Will you 
gof is I will: an answer that would be impertinent if the inquiry were not concerning 
the intention. "Oak. I will have my own way, I am determined. Major O. Why, 
that's well said. But will you do it? Oak. I will." — George Colman. "Panthino. Wilt 
thou go? Launce. Well, I will go." — Shakespeare. "Thou canst not hear it named, 
and wilt thou do it ?"— Coleridge. "How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard? When 
wilt thou arise out of thy sleep ?" — English Bible. 



118 ETYMOLOGY. 

Since the form "Shall I be elected?" denotes either "Do you resolve 
that I shall be elected?" or "Do you predict that I shall be elected?" 
we must learn from other circumstances which is meant in any partic- 
ular instance. 

To ask a question with will in the first person singular involves an 
absurdity; for such a question would represent a person as inquiring 
what his own will is. Thus, "Will I go?" is equivalent to "Is it my 
will to go?" In the Scotch song the mariner's wife, who has heard of 
the safe arrival of her husband, exclaims in the rapture of joy: 

"And will I see his face again? 
And will I hear him speak?" 

By using will instead of shall she asks if it is her will or intention to 
see him. 

But will may be employed interrogatively in the first person plural; 
as, " Will we quietly grant to European despotism what it most covets?" 
"We will do our best to repay him, will we not?" — Bulwer. In such 
cases the speaker does not inquire what his own will is,- but what is the 
will of those whom he associates with himself. 

Will may be employed in the first person singular when the speaker 
merely changes the person in repeating a question which has been 
addressed to him; as, "Will you accept the proposition?" u Will I 
accept the proposition? No, sir." 

A strong determination on the part of the speaker may be expressed 
in the form of a question with a negative; as, "Will I not punish 
him?" 

Remark. — Shall is sometimes found employed in the first person to express 
resolutions or promises, especially among the earlier writers; as, "I shall obey, 
my lord." — Shakespeare. "Proceed, I shall be silent." — Coleridge. This form may 
have been originally intended to denote that the performance of the promise would 
result from obligation or destiny rather than from will, " I shall obey " being equiv- 
alent to " I am bound to obey." Compare " Proceed, I shall be silent " with " Speak, 
I am bound to hear." — Shakespeare. 

But in the course of time this distinction ceased to be regarded, shall and will 
being used indiscriminately, sometimes both words in the same passage, to express 
the same idea; as, "Give him this money and these notes, Keynaldo. I will, my 
lord."— Hamlet. " Drive his purpose on to these delights. We shall, my lord." — lb. 
" We shall, my lord, perform what you command us." — Macbeth. "I will be corre- 
spondent to command." — Tempest. 

" If by direct or by collateral hand 
They find us touched, we will our kingdom give, 
Our crown, our life, and all that we call ours, 
To you in satisfaction ; but, if not, 
Be you content to lend your patience to us, 
And we shall jointly labor with your soul 
To give it due content." — Hamlet. 



VEEBS. 119 

"Kitely. Forget it not, nor be out of the way. 
Cash. I v)ill not, sir. 
Kitely. I pray you have a care on't; 
Or whether he come or no, if any other, 
Stranger or else, fail not to send me word. 
Cash. I shall not, sir." — Ben Jonson. 
This confounding of shall and will should be avoided. 

Shall is used in all the persons to denote simple futurity in certain 
cases in which the future event is assumed rather than directly asserted ; 
namely, after such words as except, if, though, although, whether, 
unless; in relative propositions which qualify the antecedents, and in 
propositions containing adverhs in which the idea of the relative is 
involved; as, "If ye shall see the Son of man;" "Except your right- 
eousness shall exceed the righteousness of the Scribes and Pharisees;" 
"Unless the work shall be completed;" "Every person who shall be 
present will hear;" "Whoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judg- 
ment;" "Beware of the day when the Lowlands shall meet thee in 
battle-array;" "Till time shall be no more;" "We will pursue this 
course whenever it shall be practicable ;" "Before the child shall know." 

The relative proposition who shall be present qualifies the antecedent 
person, describing what class of persons will hear; the relative propo- 
sition ivhoever shall kill qualifies the antecedent [person) understood; 
when is equivalent to in which; till is equivalent to the time at which; 
whenever to at all times at which. 

In modern usage shall is more generally omitted; as, "Unless the 
work be completed." 

Will, as well as shall, is used in commands; as, "You will proceed 
to Paris by the most direct route, and there you will await further 
orders." Shall expresses the command authoritatively; as, "Thou 
shalt not steal." Will expresses it in a milder manner as merely a 
future event. 

Those who have not been accustomed to do so from childhood, 
which is the case with the natives of Scotland, Ireland, and many 
parts of the United States, find it difiicult to make the proper distinc- 
tion between shall and will. As their error consists in using will for 
shall, not in using shall for will, they will find the difficulty removed 
by attending to the following 

CAUTIONS. 
I. First Person. 

If you wish to express merely what will take place, without any 
idea of will or determination, do not use will. 



120 ETYMOLOGY. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

"I will be compelled to leave my home." Here the speaker wishes 
to express merely what will take place, and can not mean that he is 
determined to be compelled, which would be absurd; the use of will 
is therefore improper. 

" I hope that I will see him." Here is intended to be expressed 
merely a future event, which the. speaker hopes will take place, the 
nature of the case excluding the idea of will or determination. It is 
therefore improper to use will. 

"Perhaps I will find some money." The word perhaps shows that 
the speaker can not mean that he is determined to find some money; 
and consequently the use of will is improper. 

"I will feel obliged, if you will send me the book." As the speaker 
does not wish to express a determination to feel obliged, but merely 
the result that will follow the sending of the book, he should not 
use will. 

" We will be pleased to see you." The speaker does not wish to 
say that he and those associated with him are determined to be pleased, 
which would not be complimentary, but that the pleasure will follow 
as a natural consequence of seeing the person to whom he speaks: he 
should therefore not use will. 

II. Second and Third Persons. 

If the person is to be represented as expressing merely what will 
happen to himself, without any idea of Avill or determination, do not 
use will. 

Remark. — This caution applies to dependent propositions only ; for it is in such 
propositions only that any one but the speaker can be represented as expressing 
what will happen to himself. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 
"You say that you will be compelled to leave your home." "He 
hopes that he will see him." "You think that perhaps you will find 
some money." "He says that he will feel obliged, if you will send 
him the book." "They say that they will be pleased to see you." In 
these examples you, he, and they take the place of I and we in the 
examples under Caution I, the persons being represented as foretelling 
what will happen to themselves, without any idea of will or determi- 
nation: the use of will is therefore improper. 

ITT. Interrogations. 

If the inquiry is merely about what will happen to the person 
spoken to, and not about his will or determination, do not use will. 



VERBS. 121 

Remarks.— 1. That one of these two words which would be proper in the answer 
is the word to be. employed in the question; as, "Shall you be compelled to leave 
your home ?" " I shall be compelled to leave my home." 

2. When a proposition is dependent on another which takes the interrogative 
form the use of shall and will in the dependent proposition is regulated by the 
principle involved in Caution II; as, "Do you say that you shall be compelled to 
leave your home?" 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

"Will you be happy to see me?" "Will you "be obliged to desist 
from the undertaking?" "Will you not lose your suit by doing so?" 
In these examples the inquiry is about what will happen to the person 
addressed, not about his will or determination; the use of will is 
therefore improper. 

EXERCISES. . 
1. Explain why shall is used correctly in the following examples : 
I suppose we shall see her in the spring. I shall be very happy to 
see her. Perhaps I shall be able to find him. I shall be murdered by 
my barbarous subjects. I shall perish ere they come to save me. I 
shall be secure with her. Oh, I shall die; I shall expire in a fit of 
laughing. I shall have an altercation with this honest blockhead. 
I hope we shall see Sir Peter. I fear we shall not go hence as we 
came. I shall be very much obliged to you, if you will give me your 
opinion on these points. I shall be glad to be your servant. If we 
examine this, we shall perceive its utility. What sufferings shall I 
have to endure! It is very improbable that I shall sell my house 
before Christmas. 

. 2. Explain why will is used incorrectly in the following examples : 
I dare say I will become fat, torpid, and motionless. I will be 
driven to that at last. I take it for granted we will have to endure 
them. I fancy that I will read my sermon all the better for such a 
listener. The time is so short that I will have no opportunity of seeing 
him. I will like him less than I wish. I will be ruined if you do not 
assist me. We will be punished for this. I hope I will be able to see 
him in the morning. When will we see him again? Now I will be 
teazed by all his tribe. I will be sorry to leave you, my kind friend. 
Perhaps I will be able to discover some useful coadjutor. This day, if 
he keeps his promise, we will have our answer. I will laugh myself 
to death at this puppy-headed monster. 

3. In which of the following sentences is will correctly employed? 

Help ! help ! I will be murdered ! How will I be revenged on him? 
I suppose I will find him at the inn. I will drown, nobody shall help 
me. I will do what you request me to do. I will stand, and so shall 

11 



122 ETYMOLOGY. 

Trinculo. I shall be extremely happy to see him and will leave a 
note for him at the tavern. If you are going into the field, I will go 
with you. We will often find ourselves obliged to dissent from the 
opinions of the biographer. If you come this way, we will be happy 
to see you. I will be at least three weeks in making my tour. We 
will be able to form some idea of the large field opened for Christian 
philanthropy. I will be much obliged to you, if you direct me where 
I shall find the best information. I will mount the boys on the ponies, 
and they shall scour the country forthwith, and you shall be supplied 
with yeast and eggs. Ha ! I will have a fine pet now. If it is my lot 
to crawl, I will crawl contentedly. When the political storms shall 
pass away, we will find the flag of our country floating proudly on the 
breeze. We will gain all we wish. He received acknowledgments, in 
consequence of which I will be this day set at liberty. We have every 
reason to believe that we will be called upon to record some remarkably 
fast time. Let this work go on, and we will soon be once more a united 
and happy people. I want office: if you vote for me, I will be elected; 
if you do not vote for me, I will not be elected. 

4. Insert the proper word in each of the following blanks : 

If we examine this, we .... perceive its utility. I . . . . endeavor 

to send you the book to-morrow we hear a good speech if we 

go? I . . . . seek out Falstaff. .... you go with us to behold it? 
We .... be delighted to receive a visit from you. We .... be 
conquered by our passions. I believe I . . . . receive a letter to-day. 
Poor father ! you will suffer more than I . . . . I .... be free ! unbar 
the door! I . . . . act upon my first impulse and go straight to Kalph 
Nickleby. I .... be miserable, if you leave me. I . . . . not lend 
thee a penny. The cause is in my will, I . . . . not come. 

5. Explain the difTerence4n meaning made by changing shall to will: 

As for being a bishop, that I shall never be. As for being a bishop, 
that I will never be. I shall be in London in March. I will be in 
London in March. I shall never see her again. I will never see her 
again. I shall be elected. I will be elected. We shall be satisfied. 
We will be satisfied. I shall never laugh again. I will never laugh 
again. Merrily, merrily shall I live now. Merrily, merrily will I 
live now. I assure you I shall hear no such impertinence. I assure 
you I will hear no such impertinence. I shall sell my house before 
Christmas. I will sell my house before Christmas. We shall be no 
more troubled with him. We will be no more troubled with him. 

6. Why is shall used in the following sentences ? (See Caution II.) 

You suppose that you shall see her in the spring. You say that 
you shall be happy to see her. You predict that you shall find some 



VERBS. 123 

money. He fears that he shall perish before they come to save him. 
He believes that he shall be murdered by his barbarous subjects. You 
hope you shall see Sir Peter. They fear they shall not go hence as 
they came. They say they shall be very much obliged to you, if you 
will give your opinion on these points. He says he shall be glad to be 
your servant. Do you consider it probable that you shall sell your 
house before Christmas? Do you expect that you shall become fat? 
She says that she shall be driven to that at last. Do you take it for 
granted that you shall have to endure them? You think you shall 
read your sermon better for such a listener. You assert that the time 
is so short that you shall have no opportunity of seeing him. He 
thinks he shall like him less than he wishes. He predicts that he shall 
be ruined, if you do not assist him. Do they think that they shall not 
be punished for this? He believes that he shall have an answer to-day. 
Do you know how you shall be revenged on him? (See Caution III.) 
Shall you be murdered by your barbarous subjects? Shall you find 
him at the inn? Shall you be three weeks in making your tour? 
Shall you find the flag of your country still floating? Shall you gain 
all you wish? Shall you be set at liberty to-day? Shall you hear a 
good speech, if you go? Shall you be elected? Shall you be ruined 
unless he assists you? Shall you be surprised to see him? Shalt thou 
be lord of the whole world ? Shall you do any good by going there ? 
Shall you be unhappy if I do not come? 

SHOULD and WOULD. 

Between should, the past form of shall, and would, the past form of 
will, there is in general the same distinction that exists between shall 
and will; should, according to the original signification, expressing 
events resulting from necessity, and would expressing events depend- 
ing on will; as, "The nation would [was determined] go to war;" 
"Thou art the Christ which should [was destined] come into the 
world." Should, however, is not now used in this absolute sense. 

As the present forms shall and will are employed to express events 
as future to present time, so the past forms should and would are 
employed to express events as future to past time; as, "We won- 
dered what the house would be like, and when we should get there, 
and whether we should see Mr. Jarndyce, and what he ivould say to 
us, and what we should say to him." 

This passage expresses events future to the past time to which 
wondered refers. If we change wondered to vender, we see that shall 
takes the place of should, and will that of would; as, "We wonder 
what the house will be like, and when we shall get there," etc. 



124 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Accordingly, in such forms should is used in expressing what was 
to happen to the speaker and to the person represented as foretelling 
or supposing, and would in expressing what was to happen to others. 
{See " Shall and Will,'* p. 115.) 

In promises, resolutions, or threats would is applied to the actions 
or states of the person represented as promising, etc., and should to 
those of others. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 



I predicted that 






I should be elected. 



< You would he elected. 
I He would be elected. 






I should be elected. 



You predicted that^ You should be elected. 
I He would be elected. 
I should be elected. 
You would be elected. 
He should be elected. 
LJohn would be elected. 



He predicted that 



r I would write. 
I resolved that . . -j You should write. 

I He should write. 

rl should write. 
You resolved that -J You would write. 

I He should write. 

'I should write. 

You should write. 
He resolved that . ■{ _ 

He ivould write. 

John should write. 



Where the past form of a verb is used to express a condition or 
supposition should or would may be employed in expressing the con- 
clusion; as, "If I had a pen, I would write;' 7 "If I had a pen, I should 
be compelled to write;" "If he had a pen, he ivould write;" "If he 
had a pen, he should write;" "He says that if he had a pen, he would 
write;" "He says that if he had a pen, he should be compelled to 
write;" "If I saw him acting justly, I should admire him;" "If I 
saw him acting justly, I would applaud him." 

Here the same distinction prevails between shoidd and would as in 
the preceding case. "If I saw him acting justly, I would applaud 
him," expresses a voluntary action; "If I saw him acting justly, I 
should admire him," expresses something that does not depend on will. 



VEEBS. 125 

The condition is not always formally expressed; as, "You would 
secure his favor by acting so" [if you acted so]; "I should be happy 
to find [if I should find] you restored to health;" ""Without help [if 
no one had helped me], I should have failed." 

A conclusion often stands without any condition expressed, the 
condition being implied; as, "I would not accept such an offer," 
[if it were made]; "I should be glad to go with you," [if I could]. 

Should and would, like the past forms of other verbs, may be used 
to express the condition or supposition; as, "If I should report this, 
they would not believe me;" "If he would study, he would learn." 
In this case should is used in all the persons when the assumed event 
does not depend on will; as, "If I should be compelled;" "If you 
should be compelled;" "If he should be compelled." So after though, 
unless, whether, etc. {See "Shall and Will," p. 115.) 

After the introductory that should is often used in an indefinite sense 
in all the persons, "I am surprised that he should act so" [at his acting 
so.] "I am surprised that he would act so" implies a determination. 

The use of should and would in conditions and conclusions relating 
to present time would easily lead to their being employed to express 
present time absolutely; which is the case where should is used in the 
sense of ought, and would in the sense of wish, as they are used in all 
the persons; as, "You should obey your parents;" ""Whatever ye 
would that men should do to you." 

These past forms thus used with a present sense express meanings 
which are no longer expressed by the present forms. Thus, "John 
should write" expresses a duty of John; while "John shall write" 
declares the speaker's resolution in regard to John. u Iago. Would 
you be satisfied? Othello. Would? Nay, I will." 

This usage furnishes an explanation of some common forms of 
speech, such as, "I should say that he is an honest man;" "I should 
doubt his candor;" "He is not, we should suppose, capable of perform- 
ing the labor." These are softened assertions, not so positive or abrupt 
as if should were not used. Instead of directly asserting a thing, these 
forms literally mean that circumstances are such as necessarily to lead 
the speaker to do what is expressed by the verb with which should 
is connected. "I should doubt his candor" = "I am compelled by 
circumstances to doubt his candor, whatever may be my inclination." 

When we wish to refer to past time a change is made in the infin- 
itives with which should and would are' connected; as, "John should 
have written yesterday." 

Remark. — "Should seem, Would seem. These phrases differ only in strength. 
We use « should seem ' when the case is so strong as to render the inference almost a 
necessary one ; we use ' would seem ' to express a prevailing semblance or probability, 



126 ETYMOLOGY. 

with perhaps a slight implication that the case may be otherwise. Mr. Pickering 
supposed 'would seem' to be a peculiarity of America; it is used, however, by 
English writers in the sense given above." — Webster's Dictionary. 

The difference between these two phrases is such as we should infer from the 
difference between should and would. Desire implies inclination or tendency toward 
the thing desired; "It would seem" therefore denotes a tendency to seem; while 
"It should seem" denotes the same thing as necessary. " The battle would seem to 
have been a bloody one." " The battle should seem to have been a bloody one." 
The former expression implies that all the circumstances with which we are 
acquainted tend to make the battle seem to have been a bloody one; while the 
latter implies that the circumstances necessarily make the battle seem to have 
been of that character. 

As will is used to denote a custom existing in present time, so would 
is used to denote a custom existing in past time; as, "He would spend 
whole hours in this employment." 

"These things to hear 
Would Desdemona seriously incline; 
But still the house affairs would draw her thence 
Which ever as she could with haste despatch, 
She ^d come again." — Shakespeare. 

As would is often improperly used for should, attention is directed 
to the following 

CAUTIONS. 

I. First Person. 

If there is no will or determination to be expressed, do not use 
would; as, "I should he glad to see you," not would. 

II. Second and Third Persons. 

If the person represented as saying, supposing, etc., is not to 
express will or determination, do not use would; as, "You said that 
you should be happy to see her," not would. 

III. Interrogations. 

If the inquiry is not about the will or determination of the person 
addressed, do not use would; as, " Should you be surprised to see her?" 
not would. 

EXERCISES. 
1. Explain why should is correctly used in the following examples : 
I supposed we should see her in the spring. I feared I should be 
murdered by my barbarous subjects. I thought I should expire in a 
fit of laughing. I hoped we should see Sir Peter. I never thought I 
should be compelled to build. It was very improbable that I should 
sell my house before Christmas. She imagined she should enjoy more 



VERBS. 127 

agreeable minutes with the captain. He told her he should be glad to 
see her. He was confident that he should succeed. You did not think 
that you should see him so soon. He bids me assure you he should be 
sorry not to have more schemes of kindness for his friends than of 
ambition for himself. He hinted that he should like to be buried in a 
certain spot. 

If we examined this, we should perceive its utility. If we had a 
horse, we should find him to be troublesome in this thicket. If I had 
seen him sooner, I should have been able to escape him. If I had 
recited so badly, I should be ashamed. If I had given the whole, I 
should have had no right to the sixpence. If I had written sooner, I 
should have secured the place. If I had started sooner, I should now 
be at home. If I had begun it yesterday, I should have finished it 
to-day. I should be happy to know that he is well. "With your help 
I should have succeeded. 

If I should say so, I should be guilty of falsehood. If he should 
do such a thing, I should be very much surprised. Unless he should 
agree to this, I should be very unwilling to accept his proposition. 
I should be very much displeased, if you should do so. I should 
just like to know of what use thistles are in the world. I should 
like to be Sir Eichard. What sufferings should I have to endure! 
I need not say how very happy we should be to see you here. I 
should doubt his honesty. I should suppose him to be a very poor 
man. I should say that such a man is unfit for the office. I should 
regret his election. 

2. Explain why would is incorrectly used in the following examples : 
I took it for granted we would have to endure them. I knew that 
I would be driven to that at last. I perceived that I would read my 
sermon all the better for such a listener. The time was so short that I 
knew I would have no opportunity of seeing him. • He assured me I 
would find the evening most favorable. He represented that he was 
out of money, and would like to obtain a free pass. He thought that 
he would like to marry his cousin Alice. 

I would be ruined, if you did not assist me. If all went well with 
me, I would be one of the happiest of mortals. I would be pleased to 
observe this wonderful operation of occult sympathies. Were you 
here, I would have an opportunity of pouring out my whole soul to 
you. We would not believe the second one to be true, if it came from 
any other place than the National Capital. If we were logical, we 
would be satisfied. What a wretch would I be, were I to deprive 
myself of such a blessing! The rats were rather more mutinous than 
I would have expected from the state of Caleb's larder. 



128 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. In which of the following sentences is would correctly employed? 

I supposed I would find her at the inn. I thought we would be 
punished for this. I promised that I would go. I would be surprised 
to see him here. I would go with him, if he would permit me. How 
would I be revenged on him? He said that he would drown, and 
nobody should help him. We would teach him, if he were willing 
to study. I would be very much obliged to you, if you would furnish 
the information. He promised that if I would try, he would assist me. 
We had every reason to believe that we would be called upon to record 
some remarkably fast time. 

4. Insert the proper word in each of the following blanks: 

If we examined this, we ... . perceive its utility. I .... do so, 

if I were in your place we hear a good speech, if we .... go? 

.... you go with us, if you could? I .... go, if I could. .... you 
be disappointed, if you could not see him? I believed I . . . . receive 
a letter to-day. Poor father! I knew that you would suffer more than 
I . . . . I .... be rendered miserable by your pursuing that course. 
I . . . . not lend thee a penny, though thou wert starving. I . . . . not 
be a man, if I did not feel this. 

5. Explain the difference in meaning made by changing should to would: 
He hoped that I should see him. He hoped that I would see him. 

I should do what he wishes. I would do what he wishes. If we should 
imitate him, it would be better for us. If we would imitate him, it 
would be better for us. If thou shouldst drown thyself, the loss will 
not be greatly felt. If thou wouldst drown thyself, a little water in a 
spoon will be as all the ocean. I told him that I should be in London 
in March. I told him that I would be in London in March. I said 
that I should see her again. I said that I would see her again. I 
declared that I should be elected. I declared that I would be elected. 
Did you think that I should go? Did you think that I would go? 
I am surprised that he should go. I am surprised that he would go. 

6. Why is should used in the following sentences? (See Caution II.) 

You supposed that you should see her in the spring. You said that 
you should be happy to see her. You predicted that you should find 
some money. He believed that he should be murdered by his barba- 
rous subjects. You hoped that you should see Sir Peter. They said 
that they should be very much obliged to you, if you would give your 
opinion. He said that he should be glad to be your servant. Did you 
consider it probable that you should sell your house before Christmas? 
On her death-bed she did say that she should hear the castle-bell strike 
twelve upon her wedding-day. 



VERBS. 129 

{See Caution III.) Should you be murdered by your barbarous 
subjects, if we should not assist you? Should you find him at the inn 
by going now? Should you be three weeks in making your tour, if 
the weather should continue fine? Should you have been three weeks 
in making your tour, if the weather had continued fine? Should you 
have heard a good speech, if you had gone? Should you be surprised 
to see him? 

PARSING EXERCISES. 
In parsing a verb, tell : 

1. What part of speech, and why; 

2. Whether regular or irregular, and why; 

3. The principal parts; 

4. Whether transitive or intransitive, and why; 

5. If transitive, whether active or passive, . . and why; 

6. Mood, and why; 

7. Tense, and why; 

8. Number and person, and why; 

9. Rule. 

If the verb is in the infinitive mood: 

8. What office it performs; 

9. Rule. 

If a participle: 

8. What noun it belongs to; 

9. Rule. 

"The horse runs." 

Rims is a verb — a word by which something is affirmed ; irregular — 
the past tense and the auxiliary perfect participle are not formed by 
annexing ed to the imperfect infinitive ; imperfect infinitive run, past 
tense ran, participle run; intransitive — it does not- express an action 
exerted directly upon some person or thing; indicative mood — it is 
used to express direct assertion ; present tense — it expresses what takes 
place in present time; third person singular number, because the 
subject horse is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"You have deceived me." 

Have deceived is a verb — a word by which something is affirmed; 
regular — the past tense and auxiliary perfect participle are formed by 
annexing ed to the imperfect infinitive; imperfect infinitive deceive, 
past tense deceived, participle deceived; transitive — it expresses an action 
exerted directly upon an object; active voice — the word denoting the 



130 ETYMOLOGY. 

actor is the subject; indicative mood — it is used to express direct 
assertion; present-perfect tense — it represents an action as perfect 
or completed in present time; second person plural, because the 
subject you is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"I have been deceived by you." 

Have been deceived is a verb; regular; transitive — it expresses 
an action exerted directly upon an object; passive voice— the word 
denoting the object acted upon is the subject; indicative mood; 
present-perfect tense; first person singular, because the subject / is. 

Rule. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"Come." 

Come is a verb; irregular; come, came, come; intransitive; impera- 
tive mood — it is used to express a command;* second person plural, 
because the subject yow\ is. 

Rule.— A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"Disguise thyself." 

Disguise is a verb ; regular; disguise, disguised, disguised ; transitive; 
active voice; imperative mood; second person singular, because the 
subject thou is. 

Rule. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"Thy will be done." 

Be done is a verb; irregular; do, did, done; transitive; passive 
voice; imperative mood; third person singular, because the subject 
will is. 

Rule. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

"I love to study geography." 

To study is a verb in the infinitive mood — it expresses the meaning 
of a verb in the form of a noun; regular; study, studied, studied; 
transitive — it expresses action exerted directly upon an object; active 
voice — it expresses acting; imperfect tense — it denotes an action not 
completed; it is the object of the transitive verb love. 

Rule. — The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjunct, or a finite verb. 

* As there is but one tense in this mood, nothing need be said about tense. 

f Unless there is something in the context to show that thou is the subject, 
the subject of the second person is always the plural form you. 



VERBS. 131 

" Theodore wishes to be admired." 

To be admired is a verb in the infinitive mood — it expresses the 
meaning of a verb in the form of a noun; regular; admire, admired, 
admired; transitive; passive voice — it expresses being acted upon; 
imperfect tense — it denotes action not completed; it is the object of 
the transitive verb wishes. 

Rule. — The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjunct, or a finite verb. 

"You should rise." 

Should is a verb — a word by which something is affirmed; defective 
— it is remarkable for wanting some of its parts; irregular; present 
shall, past should; transitive — it expresses action exerted directly upon 
an object; active voice — the word denoting the actor is the subject; 
indicative mood — it is used to express direct assertion; past form, used 
to express obligation existing in present time; second person plural, 
because the subject you is. (For rise see p. 82.) 

Rule. — A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

The horse runs. William has written two letters. I have seen 
George. Andrew tore his book. I will visit you. He had destroyed 
it before* my return. I shall be glad of your success. A good man 
loves God. You have deceived me. I have been deceived by you. 

Csesar conquered Pompey. Pompey was conquered by Caesar. I 
shall be honored by my companions. My companions will honor me. 
Thomas cut the wood. The wood was cut by Thomas. Several persons 
had seen the bear. The bear had been seen by several persons. Every 
one will esteem you. You will be esteemed by every one. 

Come. Listen. Run. Bead this book. Eelieve the wretched. 
Labor diligently. Avoid bad company. Ask no questions. Help 
me. Shut the door. Disguise thyself. Be advised by your friends. 
Confess your sins. 

Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done. Heaven protect him! 
God forbid! Hallowed be thy name. Go we to the king. Retire 
we to our chamber. Make we our march toward Birnam. Angels 
and ministers of grace defend us. 

I love to study geography. Theodore wishes to be admired. You 
must write. I can write. The nation would go to war. He could 
use a pen. You may read this book. He ought to rise. He ought to 
have risen. He should have risen. Could you read the letter? 

Joseph is writing. Having accomplished his object, he returned to 
his country. The man escaped, leaving his companion at the mercy 
of the bear. Hated by some, despised by others, he is without a friend. 



*The words in italics are prepositions. 



132 



ETYMOLOGY. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a verb ? The subject of a verb ? What is a transitive verb ? An intran- 
sitive verb ? When is a verb regular ? When is a verb irregular ? What is a defective 
verb? An auxiliary verb? What is voice? When is a verb in the active voice? 
When in the passive ? 

What are moods ? How many moods ? How is the indicative mood used ? The 
imperative mood ? What is the nature of the infinitive mood ? Of the participle ? 
What is the gerund? How may the gerund be modified? Are gerunds always 
simple in form ? 

What are tenses ? How many divisions of time ? How many tenses in each 
division? What are the names of the tenses? Of what are the perfect tenses 
composed ? What does the present tense express ? What does the present-perfect 
tense represent? What does the past tense express ? What does the past-perfect 
tense represent ? What does the future tense express ? What does the future-perfect 
tense represent ? Which mood has all the six tenses ? How many tenses has the 
imperative mood ? How many forms has the infinitive mood ? What does the imper- 
fect infinitive denote? The perfect? How many forms has the participle ? What 
does the imperfect participle denote ? The perfect ? The passive participle ? For 
what is the auxiliary perfect used ? 

What are the number and person of the verb? Have the infinitive and the 
participle number and person ? Why ? How many persons has the imperative ? 

What is the conjugation of a verb? What are the principal parts ? How is the 
passive voice formed? Of what are the forms which denote the action or state as 
imperfect, or continuing, composed? Where is the adverb not placed in simple 
negation? In interrogative sentences where is the subject placed ? In interrogative 
negative sentences ? 

What error in saying I have went? In saying I done? In saying I laid down? 
In saying / set down ? In saying I raised up ? In saying I have raised up 9 

What are defective verbs? What are auxiliary verbs? What is the original 
meaning of shall? What does will express? What does the mode of expressing 
simple futurity imply? What is the caution with respect to the use of will in the 
first person? In the second and third persons? In interrogations? What is the 
distinction between should and would? What is the caution with respect to the use 
of would in the first person? In the second and third persons ? In interrogations ? 

PEEPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a word used in connection with a 
following noun to form an adjunct modifying some preceding 
word; as, "The hatred of vice;" "This book will be useful 
to John;" "He lives for glory;" "He acts consistently with 
his principles."* 

The preposition of and the following noun vice form an adjunct 
modifying the preceding noun hatred; to John is an adjunct to the 

* A preposition can not properly be said to " show a relation between a noun and 
some other word; the relation is between things, not words. "He went to Paris." 
Here to shows the relation between the city and the going, not between the words 
Paris and went. 



PREPOSITIONS. 133 

adjective useful; for glory is an adjunct to the verb lives; with his 
principles is an adjunct to the adverb consistently. 

Note. — "Adjunct (Gram.), an expression added, to extend, explain, or modify 
something." — Worcester. 

Adjectives and possessives that modify the noun are regarded as 
belonging to the adjunct. "He lives in the greatest seclusion." Here 
in the greatest seclusion is an adjunct to lives. 

The word preposition is derived from the Latin propositus, placed 
before, and the preposition is so called from its position before the noun. 

The noun is called the object of the preposition ; the preceding word 
is called the antecedent term. 

The same word may have several adjuncts; as, "The stream runs 
with rapidity, by the house, into the river." 

r with rapidity, 
The stream runs -J by the house, 
I into the river. 

The noun in an adjunct may be modified by another adjunct; as, 
"This is inconsistent with the character of a man of honor." Here 
the adjective inconsistent is modified by the adjunct with the character, 
the noun character is modified by the adjunct of a man, and man is 
modified by the adjunct of honor. 

This is inconsistent ith h character 

oi a man « , 

of honor. 

The adjunct may be placed out of the natural order to which pre- 
ceding in the definition refers; as, u To John the book will be useful." 
This is always the case when the object of the preposition is a relative 
or an interrogative pronoun, because these pronouns are placed as near 
as possible to the beginning of their propositions; as, "This is the man 
to whom he spoke." Here to whom is an adjunct to spoke. 

The preposition may be separated from the object, especially in 
colloquial style; as, "This is the man whom he spoke to;" "This is the 
man that he spoke to." The relative that never has the preposition 
before it. 

The same preposition may have more than one object; as, "He 
went to London and Paris." Here to has two objects, the action 
expressed by the verb went being directed to two places. To London 
and Paris may be regarded as one adjunct modifying went. 

The meaning of betwixt and between is such as to require two 
objects when the nouns are in the singular number; as, "He sits 
between James and Thomas" The two objects may be denoted by 
one plural term; as, "He sits between them." 



134 



ETYMOLOGY. 



There may be more than one antecedent term ; as, "Be just and kind 
to all men." Here the adjunct to all men modifies both just and kind. 

The adverbs forth and out are sometimes made to change places 
with the preposition from, so that from forth and from out are used 
instead of forth from and out from; as, " Eisest from forth thy silent 
sea of pines." — Coleridge. "Such as press the life from out young 
hearts." — Byron. 

Any thing performing the office of a noun may be the object of a 
preposition: 

1. Gerund; as, "He is engaged in cutting wood." 

2. Infinitive mood; as, "He is about to go. 11 

3. Proposition; as, "The result depends on who is to be the judge; 11 
"This afforded time for the others to come up 11 

4. Adverb used in the sense of a noun; as, "Wait till then 11 (that 
time); "I will try for once 11 (one time); "We shall live for ever 11 
(all time). 

5. Adjunct used as a noun; as, "He ran from under the tree. 11 Here 
from and under do not form a compound preposition, as some say, but 
under the tree denotes the place, like a noun, and is the object of from. 
From where did he run? This construction is analogous to that of the 
preposition and adverb, the adjunct being equivalent to an adverb. 
"The average income of these small land -holders is estimated at 
between sixty and seventy pounds 11 — Macaulay. Similar to this con- 
struction is that contained in such sentences as, "They [Judgment 
and Keason] have been jurymen since before Noah was a sailor 11 tbe 
proposition Noah was a sailor taking the place of a noun after the 
preposition before, and the adjunct thus formed being the object of the 
preposition since. 

List of Prepositions. 

About, 

above, 

across, 

after, 

against, 

along, 

amid, "> 

amidst, / 

among, *i 

amongst, J 

around, 

at, 

athwart, 



before, 


from, 


till, 


behind, 


in, 


to, 


below, 
beneath, 


into, 
mid, 


toward, *> 
towards, J 


beside, 


of, 


under, 


besides, 


off, 


underneath, 


between, 


on, 


until, 


betwixt, 


over, 


unto, 


beyond, 


past, 


up, 


fey, 


round, 


upon, 


down, 


since, 


with, 


ere, 


through, 


within, 


for, 


throughout, 


without. 



PBEPOS1TIONS. 135 

Remarks.— 1. A, formed from on, was once used separately as a preposition ; as, 
" The world runs a wheels." — Ben Jonson. It is now joined to the noun ; as, ashore 
(on shore), aboard (on board). It is, however, separated from the gerund, or parti- 
cipial noun ; as, " He met her once a maying." — Milton. In modern usage a hyphen 
is often (unnecessarily) placed between this preposition and the gerund ; as, " Life 
went a-maying." — Coleridge. 

2. Aboard (on board) is generally regarded as a preposition ; as, " He went aboard 
the ship." But on board is used in exactly the same manner ; as, " He went on board 
the ship." — Johnson. In both cases it is better to suppose an ellipsis of the preposi- 
tion of, which is often expressed with aboard as well as with on board; as, " He went 
aboard (on the deck) of the vessel." If aboard is regarded as a preposition, many 
similar words must be placed in the same class ; as, astride, alongside, despite, inside, 
outside; for the preposition of is sometimes omitted after them. The same principle 
would make prepositions of left hand and either end in the following passages : " The 
mound left hand the town."— Scott. " Fastened ourselves at either end the mast."— 
Shakespeare. 

Some place the whole expression aboard of, as well as because of and instead of, in 
the list of prepositions. If aboard of is a preposition, on board of is also a prepo- 
sition ; if instead of is a preposition, we must regard in place of and in lieu of as 
prepositions. 

It is easy to see that instead consists in reality of two words, which have been 
capriciously joined together ; while in such expressions as in place of the noun and 
the preposition have been kept separate. Such words as aboard, instead, because (as 
used above), that is, by cause, may be called disguised adjuncts, the nouns included in 
them being followed by prepositions. 

3. The following also are generally included in the list of prepositions : According 
to, bating, concerning, during, except, excepting, notwithstanding, pending, regarding, 
respecting, save, saving, touching. 

4. The form of most of these words shows them to be participles. They may 
be construed as participles even where they are generally regarded as prepositions. 

5. According to. " The sentinel, according (conforming) to command, stood 
before the gate." According is a participle belonging to sentinel. "According 
(conforming) to his instructions, he proceeded on his journey." According is a 
participle belonging to he. " This course is not according (conforming, agreeable) 
to law." According is a participle belonging to course. 

"Hast thou, according (conforming) to thy oath and bond, 
Brought hither Henry Hereford?" 
"Our zeal should be according to knowledge." "The people might assemble in due 
and decent manner, according to their several degrees and orders." In this passage 
according may be regarded as belonging either to manner or to people. 
" Formally according to our law, 
Depose him in the justice of his cause." 
Here the participle according is modified by the adverb formally and belongs to you, 
the subject of depose. 

Sometimes according maybe regarded as belonging to a noun understood; as, 
" Welcome him [in a manner] according to his worth ;" "I will use them [in a manner], 
according to their desert;" " I will praise the Lord [in a manner] according to his 
righteousness ;" " Have mercy upon me [in a degree] according to thy loving-kind- 
ness ;" " We will our celebration keep [in a manner] according to my birth ;" " I love 
your majesty [in a degree] according to my bond." 

In any case according to should never be parsed as one word. If according in the 
last examples is not a participle belonging to a noun understood, it is an adverb, and 
not part of a preposition. Thus according in the last example may be regarded as 



136 ETYMOLOGY. 

an adverb modifying love. If according to is to be considered a preposition, contrary 
to must also be placed in the list ; for the latter expression is employed in precisely 
the same way as the former ; as, " I will use them contrary to their desert ;" " Though 
he pretends to act according to his instructions, he is acting directly contrary to them." 

6. Concerning. " He expounded the things which concerned himself." " He ex- 
pounded the things concerning (regarding) himself." Concerning is a participle 
belonging to things. " The true judgment concerning (relating to) the power." "A 
discourse concerning (relating to) this point." " I am free from all doubt concerning it." 
"Is that nothing? Nothing concerning me." "A work concerning allegiance." "A 
man's judgment concerning actions," "Mistakes concerning the plan and conduct of 
the poem." "That the purpose might not be changed concerning (which concerned) 
Daniel." " What is the opinion of Pythagoras concerning wild fowl ?" " Some things 
of weight concerning us and France." " No jealous toy concerning, you." " The speech 
among the Londoners concerning the French journey." In each of these examples 
concerning is a participle belonging to the noun in italics. 

In such expressions as the following concerning may seem to be a preposition : 
" The Lord hath spoken good concerning Israel ;" " They speak concerning virtue ;" 
"He told them concerning the swine;" "Thou dost not inquire wisely concerning 
this." 

Even in such cases concerning may be construed as a participle. Webster says : 
" This word has been considered as a preposition, but most improperly ; concerning, 
when so called, refers to a verb, sentence, or proposition ; as, in the first example, 
the word applies to the preceding affirmation. The Lord hath spoken good, which 
speaking good is concerning Israel. Concerning, in this case, refers to the first clause 
of the sentence." Perhaps, in this example, it would be better to consider concerning 
as referring to the noun good. If, as Webster supposes, the primary sense of concern 
" is to reach or extend to, or to look to, as we use regard," another solution may be 
given. The Lord, looking to (regarding) Israel, hath spoken good. "Concerning this 
point, what can we decide?" We concerning (looking at, regarding) this point; or 
what thing concerning this point. " He told them [things] concerning the swine." 

7. Touching. "Something touching (relating to) the lord Hamlet." "Socrates chose 
rather to die than renounce or conceal his judgment touching the unity of the god- 
head." " We may soon our satisfaction have touching that point." " Our late decree 
in parliament touching King Henry's oath." " Horatio will not let belief take hold of 
him touching this dreaded sight." "Touching our person seek we no revenge." "I 
have found no fault in this man touching these things." " We have confidence in the 
Lord touching you." "Touching things which relate to discipline the church hath 
authority to make canons and decrees." "What [thing] have you to say touching 
this point?" "This paper is the history of my knowledge touching her flight." "And 
now forthwith shall articles be drawn touching the jointure that your king must 
make." 

The verb to touch has the signification of affect, concern, relate to; as, "Nothing 
can touch him further;" "It touches us not." The participle has precisely the same 
signification, and is no more a preposition than is the infinitive. 

8. Regarding, respecting. " His conduct respecting (relating to) us is commendable." 
"There is but one opinion respecting his conduct." "He has a great deal to say 
regarding this thing." "Regarding (looking at, considering) this matter we say." 
"There is none worthy [we] respecting (considering) her that's gone." "I am 
mean indeed [we, or men] respecting (considering) you." "Respecting man whatever 
[thing] wrong we call." " This allusion respects an ancient custom." " This allusion 
respecting an ancient custom is very striking." "Respecting a further appropriation of 
money it (this thing) is to be observed that the resources of the country are inade- 
quate ' ' [Or we respecting, looking at a further appropriation]. " Whether our daughter 
were legitimate [we, or men], respecting this our marriage with the dowager." 



PREPOSITIONS. 137 

9. Bating, excepting, saving. These words belong sometimes to words expressed, 
sometimes to words of general meaning, such as we, men, you, they, indicated by 
the context; their construction being the same as that of granting, admitting, etc., 
in such sentences as the following : " Granting this to be true, he is not proved 
guilty;" "Admitting her innocence, she was very imprudent." {See Syntax, HI.) 

"We have little reason to think that they bring many ideas with them, [we] 
bating (if we bate), perhaps, some faint ideas of hunger and thirst." "The king 
could not choose an advocate whom I would sooner hear on any subject, [we, or I] 
bating (if we bate) his love, than you." "[We] bating (if we leave out) the outward 
respect due to his birth, they treated him very hardly." " The prisoners were all 
condemned, [we] excepting three." "Excepting one, I would he were the best in all 
this presence." " [ We] excepting (if we except) the royal family, they get but little 
by it." " He ordered the baggage to be brought to one place, [they] excepting only 
such things as were very necessary." "None of them was cleansed, [we] saving 
(leaving out) Naaman the Syrian." " [We] saving (preserving, having due regard to) 
your reverence, he is the devil himself." [We, I] saving (having due regard to) 
your merry humor, here's the note." "[IFe] saving your tale, Petruchio, let as 
speak too." 

10. During, pending. These participles are connected with nouns expressed, 
which, instead of being in the objective, are in the nominative case (nominative 
absolute). " He holds the property during life (life during; that is, while life dures, 
continues)." "Our office may, during his power (his power during, while his power 
endures), go sleep." "During which time (which time during), he ne'er saw Syra- 
cusa." "During his childhood, he was under the care of his aunt." " Pending the 
suit (the suit pending, while the suit was pending, depending), he left the country." 
"Pending the discussion of this subject (the discussion of this subject pending, while 
the discussion of this subject was pending), a memorial was presented." 

The verb to dure was once in common use; as, "Dureth for a while." — English 
Bible. " This battle dured three parts of the night."— Stow. " Paul made a sermon 
during to midnight." — Tyndale. "To love hire while his lif may dure.' 1 '' — Chaucer. 
To endure has the same meaning; as, " For his mercies aye endure." — Milton. 

The verb to pend is confined to the "progressive forms," or those which denote 
action continuing; as, "The suit is pending;'" "The negotiations were pending;" 
"The suit will be pending." To depend has the same signification. 

11. Notwithstanding. Here we have two words, the adverb not and the participle 
withstanding, which can not be changed to one word by the stroke of a pen or the 
omission of a printer's space. It is the meaning of words, and not the way in which 
they may chance to be written, that determines their character. Withstanding is 
to be construed like during and pending, though it is not always placed before the 
noun, as they are. " This is a correct English idiom, Dr. Lowth's opinion to the 
contrary not withstanding." Here the participle withstanding is modified by the 
adverb not, and belongs to the noun opinion, which is in the nominative case (nomi- 
native absolute). " Their gratitude made them proclaim the wonders he had done 
for them, notwithstanding his prohibition (his prohibition not preventing)." "He is 
rich, not withstanding his loss." "Not withstanding that [thing], the troops must be 
reviewed."* 



*Mr. Goold Brown says, "The compound word notwithstanding is not a parti- 
ciple, because there is no verb to notwithstand." But there is a verb to withstand, 
and Mr. Brown does not always regard as one word two words which happen to be 
written without a space between them. It is customary to write another as one word ; 
but he separates them, writing an other. Can not may be often seen as one word, 
cannot; yet they are always regarded as two words. Mr. B. quotes from Bolingbroke, 

12 



138 ETYMOLOGY. 

If these words fn ing&ve not participles, but prepositions, the list of prepositions 
must include several other words which are used in the same way. "Relating to this 
matter we have little to say." "He expounded the things relating to himself." 
" Nothing pertaining to me." "Excluding one, I would he were the best in all this 
presence." "Including the captain, nineteen were taken ;" "Obedient to your grace's 
will, I come to know your pleasure;" "She saw nothing, owing to the darkness, but 
her own face imaged on the glass." — Dickens. 

Except. This is a passive participle, belonging to a noun in the nominative case 
(nominative absolute). In participles derived from the Latin, especially when ending 
with the sound of t, the termination ed was often omitted; that is, the Latin root 
itself was used, without either English or Latin terminations, final e being added 
when necessary to preserve the long sound of the preceding vowel ; as, " Before I 
be convict by course of law." — Shakespeare. " He was contract to Lady Lucy."— Id. 
"Compact of unctuous vapor." — Milton* "Convict by flight." — Id. "All thy goods 
are confiscate." — Shakespeare. "The fire being create for comfort." — Id. So Bacon 
employs condensate for condensated, copulate for copulated, etc. 

The following examples will show that except and excepted are alike in con- 
struction : 

"Always excepted my dear Claudio." — Shakespeare. 

" Richard except, those whom we fight against 
Had rather have us win than him they follow." — Id. 

" Thunderbolts excepted, quite a god." — Cowper. 

"God and his son except, 
Nought valued he nor feared." — Milton. 
"I could see nothing except the sky (the sky except, excepted.)"* 

Except when followed by the objective case may be regarded as a verb in the 
imperative mood. " Except him, all were dismissed;" that is, except you him, or 
except we him. " If we only except the unfitness of the judge, all other things 
concurred." — Stilling fleet. The imperative is often employed instead of a conditional 
proposition ; and the imperative here would express the idea as completely as it is 
expressed by the conditional proposition; as, "Only except the unfitness of the 
judge, all other things concurred." 

13. Save. This word is regarded by lexicographers as a verb in the imperative 
mood. "Israel burned none of them, save Hazor only." Webster says, "Save is 
here a verb followed by an object." When it is followed by an objective case it is 
used as a verb; as, "All were gone, save him who now kept guard." — Rogers. "All 
desisted, all save him alone." — Wordsworth. But save is usually followed, not by the 
objective, but by the nominative ; as, " For that mortal dint, save he who reigns 
above, none can resist." — Milton. " Not a man depart, save I alone." — Shakespeare. 
"All the conspirators, save only he, did that they did in envy of great Csesar." — Id. 

" He had succeeded, notwithstanding them, peaceably to the throne." In this pas- 
sage notwithstanding is used as a preposition ; but the expression is not idiomatic 
English, the true English form being they notwithstanding (they not preventing). 
The usual manner of expressing this idea is, notwithstanding their opposition, or 
efforts, exertions, etc. 

* Compare the use of the participles reserved and taken in the following passages 
with that of except: "Whereat all men were abashed, reserved the chiefe justice, 
who humbly exhorted the prince to be contented." — Sir Thomas Elyot. {Cited in Lord 
CampbelVs Lives of the Chief Justices, 1, 127.) "Always reserved my holy duty." — Cymbeline. 
" My soveraine plesance over all thing, out taken Crist on loft."— Chaucer. Except 
Christ on high, Christ on high being excepted or taken out. 



PREPOSITIONS. 139 

" No man might buy or sell, save he that had the mark." — English Bible. " Save we 
two in the house." — Id. " Not that any man hath seen the Father, save he which is 
of God." — Id. "Every man save thou hath told his tale." — Chaucer. "All slept 
sound, save she who bore them both." — Rogers. 

Save, as commonly used, seems rather to be the adjective safe, f being exchanged 
for its kindred letter v. Indeed, the original letter is v, since this word is derived 
from the Latin salvus, from which is derived the French sauf (fern, sauve). The 
leading idea in safe is freedom, exemption (from danger, injury, etc.) ; and it would be 
easy to extend this idea of exemption to other things than danger and injury, so that 
the word should be employed to express exemption from what is included in a gen- 
eral statement. "All perished, save he ;" that is, he safe, he being safe, he excepted 
(nom. absolute). " Bat the poor man had nothing, save (safe) one little ewe lamb." 

Compare with this form the Latin salva fide, safe faith, faith being preserved; 
salvo eo, safe (save) that, that being excepted. Also the use of sauf (safe) in French ; 
as, "Partage de toute la partie libre de C ager publicus, sauf celui de la Campanie." — Louis 
Napoleon. (Partition of all the unappropriated part of the public land, safe that of 
Campania.) 

Chaucer uses sauf with the sense of save; as, "Sauf (safe) his cappe, he rode all 
bare;" "That no man wote thereof, sauf God and he;" "He wol suffre no wight 
bere the key sauf he himself."* 

14. But. This word is sometimes used as a preposition ; as, " "Whence all but 
him had fled."— Hemans. The usual form, however, is "all but he." The latter 
form is easily explained if we consider but as a contraction of be out, be being a verb 
in the imperative mood. All had fled, be out he {b'ut he), be he out of the number. 
If this explanation is not accepted, but must be taken as a conjunction, with an 
ellipsis of such words as may be necessary to form a complete proposition; as, "All 
had fled, but he had not fled." The supplying of the ellipsis would sometimes 
exhibit very awkward and unsatisfactory constructions. " Who can it be but perjured 
Lycon?" This passage presents no difficulty if but is regarded either as a prepo- 
sition or as a contraction of be out; but if this word is considered a conjunction, it is 
not very easy to supply the ellipsis. " Who can it be but it can be perjured L} T con?" 
One w r ho understands the language would scarcely be satisfied with this. "None 
but Nestor answered him." "None answered him, but Nestor answered him," does 
not express the meaning of the passage. The writer intends to make prominent 
the idea of the exclusion of all the others, while the latter sentence makes Nestor's 
answering the prominent idea. 

It is to be observed that the nominative case is used after but without regard to 
the case of the preceding noun ; so that this word can not be said to "connect like 
cases." Thus, 

"My father' hath no child but I."— Shakespeare* 
"I do not think 
So fair an outside, and such stuff within, 
Endows a man but he." — Id. 
I hope it be not gone fo tell my lord 
That I kiss aught but he."— Id. 

In these passages child, man, and aught are in the objective caise, stnd it is not 
easy to see how "the ellipsis" is to be supplied, awkwardly or otherwise. 

-'•Some may prefer to consider save an apocopated participle, like shave, shape, 
take, confuse, etc., which are employed in old English for shaven (shaved), shapen, 
(shaped), taken, confused,- etc. ; as, " It hadde ben anoint;"— Chaucer. " His berd was 
shave as neighe as ever he can."— Id. The construction would still be that of the 
nominative absolute. "All perished, saved he" — he saved. 



140 ETYMOLOGY. 

Butan is sometimes a preposition in the Anglo-Saxon language; as, "Butan 
wifum and cildum," without or besides women and children. If but were usually 
followed by the objective case, it would be a preposition ; but as the weight of 
authority is against this construction, the simplest way is to consider but as a 
contraction of be out, and the following nominative the subject of the verb. Those 
who attempt to dispose of this word as a conjunction will find difficulties much more 
embarrassing than that of regarding but {b 'ut) as two words, the verb be and the 
adverb out (in Anglo-Saxon ut) ; as don't, which, so far as sound is concerned, might 
be written dont, is in reality two words, the verb do and the adverb not.* I'll, or He 
as formerly it was sometimes written, is in reality two words, the pronoun J and 
the verb will. * 

15. The two words out of are generally regarded as one preposition ; but out is 
an adverb, with a meaning of its own. " He was not out (on the outside) of the 
house to-day." Here out is an adverb modifying the verb was, and of is a prep- 
osition forming with the house an adjunct to out. "Help me out (to the outside) 
of the pit." " We are out (in want) of bread." 

16. When any of the words in the list of prepositions stands without an objective 
case, it is generally an adverb; as, "He is lying down." In many cases, however, 
an objective may be properly supplied ; as in the following passage, in which hill is 
omitted after down, being readily suggested by what precedes : 

" The king of France, with forty thousand men, 
Marched up a hill, and then marched down again." • 

17. The Latin prepositions per and versus are employed in some technical 
expressions; as, "Ten dollars per barrel;" "Smith versus Jones." The French 
preposition sans, without, occurs in Shakespeare ; as, "Sans teeth." Some place 
the Latin words plus, minus, and via in the list. As plus and minus are adjectives 
in Latin, and via a noun, it is no.t necessary to transform them to prepositions. 
The expression " 6 minus 3 " means 6 less by 3. " The amount of £3,000 per annum, 
less by the students' fees." — Charles Kingsley. Compare dimidio minus, less by half. 
Via signifies by the way (of understood). Goold Brown places among prepositions 
despite, inside, outside, left hand, etc., in such expressions as the following : "Despite 
old spleen," " inside the room," " outside the peach," "left hand the town." But of 
should be expressed after such words. 

RECAPITVLA TION. 

According, bating, excepting, saving, withstanding, during, pending, concerning, 
regarding, respecting, and touching are participles belonging to nouns expressed 
or understood. Except is usually a participle ; when followed by an objective it 
is a verb in the imperative mood. Save is a form of the adjective safe,-\ the noun 
with which it is connected being in the nominative case absolute; when followed 
by an objective it is a verb in the imperative mood. But is a contraction of be out; 
be is a verb in the imperative mood, modified by the adverb out, the noun that 
follows being the subject of be. 

* "Except, and but and save in the sense of except, are sometimes followed by 
nominatives, and thus used as conjunctions : but the better usage is to convert 
them into prepositions by putting the substantives after them in the objective 
case." — KerVs Treatise on the English Language. If by "better usage" the author 
means the practice of the best writers, he is greatly mistaken; if he means better 
treatment, it is not easy to see how those obstinate nominatives he and / are to be 
treated so as to be put in the objective case and made to stay there. 

fOr an apocopated participle for saved. 



PEEPOSITIONS. 141 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the prepositions, the adjuncts, and the words modified : 

He went from New York. He went to New Orleans. He went 
from New York to New Orleans. The book lies before him. The 
book lies on the table. The book lies before him on the table. The 
book lies on the table before him. I bring fresh showers for the thirsty 
flowers. I bring fresh showers from the sea. I bring from the sea 
fresh showers for the thirsty flowers. For the thirsty flowers I bring 
from the sea fresh showers. Our country sinks beneath the yoke. Our 
country sinks beneath the yoke of the oppressor. Thomas swam across 
the river. Thomas swam across the river with great ease. With great 
ease Thomas swam across the river. I wandered along the mazes of 
the rivulet. I wandered along the mazes of the rivulet for several 
hours. He has laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains. The 
company crowded about the fire. How bowed the woods beneath 
their sturdy stroke! "Why should I for others groan when none will 
sigh for me? Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 
Care supplies sighs to my breast and sorrow to my eyes. By fairy 
hands their knell is rung. By forms unseen their dirge is sung. No 
sense have they of ills to come. Gently on thy suppliant's head, dread 
goddess, lay thy chastening hand. They from his presence hid them- 
selves among the thickest trees. Above the clouds is the sun still 
shining. Confusion on thy banners wait. From hill to hill, from 
peak to peak, the echo sounds. 

On a rock, whose haughty brow 

Frowns o'er old Conway's foaming flood, 

Eobed in the sable garb of woe, 

"With haggard eyes the poet stood. — Gray. 

2. Insert an appropriate preposition in the place of the following blanks: 
She moves .... the house. The stars are shining .... us. Edgar 

ran .... the street. I have not seen him .... that time. He threw 
his ball .... the well. Mary often walks .... the bank .... the river. 

There are some good boys .... them them stood the tree of life. 

Not being able to pass .... the thicket, he went .... it. I had never 
seen him .... that time. The dogs barked .... me. He wished me 
to sit ... . him. He trades .... London and Paris. His success is 
.... his expectations. He was killed .... the blow .... a hatchet. 
The stream flows .... the side .... the mountain. The exile longs 
.... his country. She walks .... the garden. He fell .... the horse. 
She walked out .... the house. She walked out .... the house .... 
the garden. The pigeons flew .... the barn. He has put all his 



142 ETYMOLOGY. 

enemies .... his feet. The rope was placed .... his neck. Sisyphus 
rolls a huge stone .... a hill. He has bestowed a valuable gift .... 
them. Break .... the thick array .... his thronged legions. She has 
her friend .... her. Stay .... the house. Let him go ... . me ; for I 
can not go ... . him. 

3. Form sentences each containing one or more of the following prepositions : 
About. Above. After. Along. Among. Around. At. Before. 
Below. Beside. By. From. With. Through. To. Till. "Without. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

" He died for glory." 

For is a preposition — it is used in connection with the noun glory to 
form an adjunct modifying the verb died. 

Rule.— A preposition with its object forms an adjunct modifying some pre- 
ceding word. 

"John is respectful and obedient to his parents." 

To is a preposition — it is used in connection with the noun parents 
to form an adjunct modifying the adjectives respectful and obedient. 

Rule.— A preposition with its object forms an adjunct modifying some pre- 
ceding word. 

He died for glory. John is respectful and obedient to bis parents. 
The books belong to John and William. He sleeps with his ancestors. 
That boy is devoted to study. They labor from morning till night. 
He has gone to Pensacola. His cottage is surrounded by trees and 
covered with vines. He is walking around the farm. She gazes at 
him from the window. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a preposition? What is an adjunct ? From what is the word preposition 
derived? What is the noun called? Give an example in which the same words 
have more than one adjunct. Give an example in which the noun in an adjunct is 
modified by another adjunct. Give examples in which an adjunct is placed out of 
the natural order. May the same preposition have more than one object? Give an 
example in which there are more antecedents than one. What adverbs are some- 
times made to change places with the preposition from ? Give an example in which 
a gerund is used after a preposition. An infinitive. A proposition. An adverb. An 
adjunct. Give a list of the prepositions beginning with a. With b. With d. Withe. 
With/. Withi With m. Witho. With p. Withr. With s. With t. Withw. Withw. 

ADVEKBS. 

An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb; as, "He acts cautiously;" "He is remark- 
ably cautious;" "He acts more cautiously." 



ADVERBS. 143 

In the first example the adverb cautiously modifies the verb acts; 
in the second example remarkably modifies the adjective cautious; in 
the third more modifies the adverb cautiously. 

Remarks.— An adverb is an abridged expression for an adjunct; cautiously 
meaning in a cautious manner, remarkably meaning in a remarkable degree, more 
meaning in a greater degree. So here = in this place, then = at that time, etc. 

2. In general we have adverbs for such adjuncts as would be most commonly- 
used. Adverbs and adjuncts are often employed indiscriminately to express the 
same idea; as, " He acted prudently;''' "He acted with prudence." 

3. Though it is generally true that a word which is equivalent to an adjunct is an 
adverb, yet this is not always the case. A qualifying adjective joined to a noun 
denotes the possession of the quality by the object, and such adjectives are equivalent 
to adjuncts formed by of or with denoting possession. "A wise man"="aman of 
(possessing) wisdom;" "The swift-footed Achilles "="Achilles with (possessing) 
the swift foot." Other adjectives expressing the want of the quality are equivalent to 
adjuncts formed by the preposition without, denoting negation of possession. "An 
unwise man"=" a man without (not possessing) wisdom." 

4. Some adverbs are adjuncts from which the prepositions have been dropped. 
Awhile*= for a while; sometimes = at some times. "Twilight loves to linger for a 
while ;" " Twilight loves to linger a while." " No mortal author knows to what use 
his works may sometime or other be applied." — Addison. Sometime should have 
been written as two words, at being understood. 

5. Such adverbs as ahead, away, are formed by uniting the preposition a with 
nouns. Ahead=at the head; ashore— on the shore. 

EXERCISES. 

1. What do the adverbs in the following sentences modify? 

He labors diligently. They live happily. She is very industrious. 
The lady was fashionably dressed. Eugene listens attentively. My 
book is here. Go immediately. Thomas was thoroughly disgusted. 
Come again. Come often and stay long. He studies well. The 
enemy was wholly unprepared. He sometimes studies well. He 
speaks fluently. He speaks very fluently. She writes correctly. 

She moves gracefully. I never saw a more graceful person. My 
work is almost done. When did you see Orlando ? Should you like 
to see him again? Where did you see him? How did he behave? 
Admirably. He was greatly beloved. How often have you seen the 
rhinoceros? Twice. She never told her love. The basket is full 
enough. 

2. Form sentences each containing one or more of the following adverbs: 

Wisely. Beautifully. Now. Then. Furiously. Hardly. Once. 
Sometimes. Sooner. Forward. Fast. Slowly. Bravely. Yonder. 
Completely. Out. Away. So. 

"More properly written as two words, a while, the word while being simply a 
noun=tame. 



144 



ETYMOLOGY, 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 
Adverbs may be arranged in the following 

1. Adverbs of Time; as, 



classes 



now, 


once, 


early, 


before, 


then, 


twice, 


late, 


after, 


when, 


long, 


sometimes, 


till, 


whenever, 


previously, 


occasionallv, 


until, 


soon, 


formerly, 


already, 


afterward, 


often, 


recently, 


yet, 


since, 


frequently, 


lately, 


seasonably, 


again, 


always, 


newly, 


continually, 


while, 


ever, 


immediately, 


henceforth, 


annually, 


evermore, 


seldom, 


thenceforth, 


finally, 


aye, 


never, 


hereafter, 


hitherto, 


eternally, 


betimes, 


as, 


anon. 




2. Adverbs 


of Place; as, 




here, 


aside, 


downward, 


out, 


there, 


aloof, 


downwards, 


before, 


where, 


aloft, 


onward, 


behind, 


hence, 


away, 


forward, 


above, 


thence, 


vonder, 


on, 


below, 


whence, 


somewhere. 


homeward, 


up, 


hither, 


elsewhere, 


outward, 


down, 


thither, 


afar, 


apart, 


off, 


whither, 


inward, 


forth, 


to, 


far, 


upward, 


back, 


fro. 




3. Adverbs < 


3F Degree; as, 




very, 


wholly, 


equally, 


scarcely, 


much, 


totally, 


even, 


how, 


more, 


entirely, 


so, 


however, 


most, 


altogether, 


enough, 


chiefly, 


little, 


quite, 


sufficiently, 


alike, 


less, 


exceedingly, 


vastly, 


rather, 


least, 


eminently, 


partially, 


sooner, 


almost, 


excessively, 


somewhat, 


the, 


mostly, 


intolerably, 


no, 


as, 


nearly, 


tolerably, 


hardly, 


largely, 


too, 


thoroughly, 


greatly, 


none. 





ADVERBS. 


14 




4. Adverbs < 


)F Manner; as, 




well, 


slow T ly, 


thus, 


like, 


m, 


prudently, 


as, 


separately, 


badly, 


bravely, 


so, 


asunder, 


boldly, 


right, 


together, 


headlong, 


wisely, 


fast, 


anyhow, 


pell-mell, 


happily, 


loud, 


somehow, 


helter-skelter, 


justly, 


aloud, 


nohow, 


lengthwise, 


gloriously, 


how, 


otherwise, 


out. 


5. 


Adverbs of Cause, 


Reason, Inference; as, 


hence, 


therefore, 


so, 


consequently, 


thence, 


why, 


then, 


necessarily, 


whence, 


wherefore, 


accordingly, 


needs. 



6. Adverbs of Addition and Exclusion; as, 
too, besides, but, simply, 



likewise, 


only, 


moreover, 


solely, 


also, 


merely, 


withal, 


barely. 


7. Adverbs 


of Affirmation, 


Negation, 


and Doubt; as, 


yes, 


verily, 


indeed, 


haply, 


ay, 


surely, 


not, 


perchance, 


yea, 


doubtless, 


nay, 


peradventure, 


truly, 


undoubtedly, 


no, 


emphatically, 


certainly, 


forsooth, 


perhaps, 


decidedly, 


absolutely, 


really, 


possibly, 


unquestionably. 



Remarks.— 1. The same word may be placed in more than one class, since it 
may have more than one meaning. 

2. Most adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives by adding ly, from the 
Anglo-Saxon lie, like ; as, just, justly (justlike) ; rich, richly. But in forming adverbs 
from such adjectives as humble we drop the silent e and add y, so that the I stands 
as both part of the word and part of the termination; as, humble, humbly; ample, 
amply; simple, simply. 

In general when an adjective ends in ly no adverb is formed from it, an adjunct 
being used to express the idea; as, "He acted in a manly manner," not manlily. 
There are, however, a few words in ly which are both adjectives and adverbs ; 
as, likely. 

3. To-day, to-morrow> yesterday, which are generally classed with adverbs, are 
nouns ; as, " To-day is as yesterday, and to-morrow will be as to-day." When they 
seem to be used as adverbs there is an ellipsis of a preposition; as, "He departed 
[on] yesterday." 

4. Though adverbs are generally used for such adjuncts only as are joined to 
verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, yet some adverbs may be used as adjuncts to nouns ; 
as, " I saw John only." Here only performs the same office in relation to the noun 
John that it does in relation to the verb saw in the sentence, " I only saw John. ,! In 

13 



146 ETYMOLOGY. 

each case it is used to exclude every idea but that expressed by the word to which 
it is joined ; in the one case excluding every object but John, in the other every action 
but seeing. It will not do to say that the fact of its modifying a noun makes it an 
adjective. "His son only was there" is entirely different from "His only son 
was there." 

The only way in which we can avoid the difficulty regarded as involved in rep- 
resenting an adverb as modifying a noun is by supposing a verb or a participle 
understood. " I saw John only (onely)"=" I saw John being in a state of oneness, 
in a state excluding all others." 

Adverbs and adjuncts frequently modify verbs or participles understood; as, 
"God above deal between me and thee." Here above modifies not the noun God, 
but the verb is understood. "Gcd who is above deal between me and thee." "He 
learned this from a dozen voices [speaking] together." "They could talk whole 
hours [taken, coming] together upon any thing." — Addison. "A man recently from 
California." "He lived in Nashville, and his house there was very large." "On 
once a flock-bed, but repaired with straw, great Villiers lies." — Pope. 

5. Adverbs sometimes modify adjuncts ; as, "He dwells far beyond St. Louis;" 
" The boat started long before noon ;" "Even in our ashes live their wonted fires ;" 
"Even at that time the morning cock crew loud;" "Trembling even at the name 
of Mortimer." 

6. Some adverbs are often used in the sense of adjuncts containing relative 
pronouns; "The grave where (in which) our hero was buried." — Wolfe. "Time 
was when I was free as air." — Cowper. 

7. The is sometimes an adverb; as, "The smoother the surface is the deeper the 
water is "=" The water is deep in the degree in which the surface is smooth." 

The thus used is from the ablative case {thy, the) of the Anglo-Saxon se, that, the, 
which is also used as a relative. "By what smoother the surface is by that deeper 
the water is." The idea is sometimes (clumsily) expressed in imitation of a Latin 
form ; "By how much smoother the surface is by so much deeper the water is." 

8. Participles are sometimes employed as adverbs; as, "My clothes will be 
dripping wet." So we say scalding hot (so hot as to scald), passing strange, exceeding 
strange (so strange as to pass [surpass], exceed, other strange things). 

9. Nay, no, and not * are called negative adverbs. Nay is nearly obsolete. In the 
negative answer to a question not is generally used when the other words of the 
answer are expressed, and no when they are omitted. " Has James ever read the 

*Horne Tooke, speaking of "not and its abbreviate no," says : "But we need not 
be any further inquisitive, nor, I think, doubtful concerning the origin and significa- 
tion of not and no, since we find that in the Danish nodig, and in the Swedish nodig, 
and in the Dutch noode, node, and no, mean averse, unwilling.' 11 It does not seem 
necessary to go so far in search of the origin of not. It is simply the word naught 
(nat, with a broad), with no change in the pronunciation but the shortening of the 
vowel-sound, short o being the short sound corresponding to broad a. Chaucer often 
uses naught (sometimes nat) where we use not; as, "[Actseon's dogs] freten (devour) 
him, for that they knew him naught." The nature of the word is illustrated in the 
following sentences : " I am in nothing deceived ;" " I am nothing deceived ;" " I am 
in naught deceived ;" " I am naught deceived ;" " I am not deceived." " We doubt it 
nothing;" "We doubt it naught;" "We doubt it not." " Which not enriches him;" 
" Which naught enriches him ;" " Which nothing enriches him." 

"Adverbs promote brevity. They are not absolutely necessary to convey our 
thoughts. Perhaps we could dispense with all of them except not." — KerVs Treatise 
on the English Language. It may be seen that we could dispense with not more con- 
veniently than we could dispense with many other adverbs. 



ADVEBBS. 147 

book?" is answered by " He has not read it," or by "No." No is then to be consid- 
ered a form of the negative adverb used when the modified words are omitted. 

Some assert that no as thus used is independent. Independent of what ? It is 
employed to deny something. It does not stand independent of its surroundings and 
refer to nothing. No, in answer to the question, " Has James ever read the book ?" 
gives a negative to the implied sentence, "James has read the book." The question 
might be answered by the adverb never; as, "He has never read the book," or, 
suppressing the other words, "i^euer." No in the answer is no more independent 
than never. 

10. Yes is generally used to denote assent in answer to a question, and it may be 
regarded as modifying some word in a manner similar to no. "Has James ever 
read the book ?" " Yes." " Certainly." 

11. Some adverbs are used as introductory, transitional, or expletive; as, "Well, 
let us go ;" "Now, Barabbas was a robber ;" " Why, you told me so yourself;" "Nay, 
I will say more." 

12. Such phrases as to and fro, by the bye, by and by, well nigh, out and out, no more, 
long ago, so so, ever and anon, the best, all over, all along, ever so, have been called 
"adverbial phrases," as if the separate words had no meaning of their own. But 
to has a meaning of its own, and so has fro; and there is no greater propriety in 
huddling them together than there would be in making an "adverbial phrase" 
of backward and forward. By the bye is an adjunct, bye meaning way; as, "There 
is, upon the bye (by the way), to be noted the percolation." — Bacon. We employ 
ever and anon merely to give greater force by repetition, just as we employ over and 
over, again and again, many a time and oft. By and by is used in the same way. " I 
will come by and by "=" I will come soon and soon." Ever is one word, and so is 
another, each having its own meaning. " Wrangle ever so long." Here long is 
modified by so, and so by ever. "He was very nigh dead;" "He was well nigh 
dead." In the former sentence the adverb nigh is modified by the adverb very, and 
in the latter the same adverb is modified by the adverb well. In the sentence, " He 
died long ago," ago is modified by long; ago denoting that the time is past, and 
long that it is long past. Other expressions of the kind are to be explained in a 
similar way. 

13. Ago is an old participle of the verb to go, meaning gone. " Worldly joye 
is soone ago.'''' — Chaucer. When it is connected with a noun the simplest way of 
parsing it is to regard it as a participle. In this sentence, "He died a year ago," 
year is in the nominative absolute with the participle ago. A year ago=a year gone, 
a year being gone (since the event). When the noun is omitted ago is parsed as an 
adverb. " He died long ago "=" He died a long time ago." • 

14. From several adjuncts in common use the noun has been dropped, and the 
name of " adverbial phrase " has been given to the preposition and adjective. Such 
are in vain (in a vain manner), at last, at the last (at the last time, stage, event), to the 
last, at most, at the most (at the most, or highest, degree), at least, at the least (esti- 
mate, etc.), at best, at the best (state), at present (time), at first, at the first, from the 
first (time, etc.), in particular (manner), in general (manner, degree, etc.), in few 
(words), in short (phrase), in private (manner, state, etc.), in public (manner, etc.), 
in full (manner, degree, etc.), of old (time), of late (time), on high (place), above all 
(things), by far (by a far, or great, degree). Such expressions may, for the sake of 
distinction, be called elliptical adjuncts. 

Some make "adverbial phrases" of such simple adjuncts as at random, in fine, 
in conclusion, of course, for the most part, at length, by no means ; for what reason it is 
not easy to see. 

15. Adverbs are sometimes used in such a way as to become nouns ; as, from 
hence, from afar, from above, from within, till now, till then, before long, ere long, at once 



148 ETYMOLOGY. 

(at one time), this once, for aye, for ever" (for all time). In the phrase some how or 
other the word how is used in the sense of manner. 

As hence, thence, and whence contain in themselves the idea of from, the from 
before them is superfluous. 

16. Here, there, where, in the compounds formed by the union of these words with 
the prepositions at, in, of, by, for, etc., are equivalent to this, that, which. Herein— in 
this, whereby=by which, therefore (therefor)=/br that (reason, etc.), whereof=of which. 
These compounds are not so generally used as formerly. Therefore and wherefore 
are often called conjunctions, though they are no more conjunctive than are therein^ 
wherein, etc. 

17. Than is generally regarded as a conjunction ; but it is an adverb. Compare 
these sentences : " He is as benevolent as he is rich ;" " He is more benevolent than 
he is rich ;" " He is benevolent in that degree in which he is rich ;" "He is benevolent 
in a degree equal to that in which he is rich ;" " He is benevolent in a degree above that 
in which he is rich." It will be seen that in denoting the superiority than performs 
the' same office that as performs in denoting the equality. "Mary is wiser than 
James "=" Mary is wise in a degree above that in which James is wise." 

The explanation which Home Tooke, Richardson, and some others give of this 
construction is that than means then. " Mary is wiser first, then James is wise." A 
very unsatisfactory attempt at explanation. Mr. Mulligan's explanation is much 
more satisfactory. Thonne (thone, thanne) is the Anglo-Saxon accusative of se, that; 
and Mr. M. supposes that the preposition ofer, over, has been suppressed before 
this accusative. " He is taller than his brother "="He is taller over that {degree) 
his brother is tall." In support of Mr. Mulligan's explanation may be quoted such 
passages as An steorra ofer othre beorht, a. star bright over others. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADYEKBS. 

Some adverbs are sometimes used in such a way as to be equivalent 
to two adjuncts, of which one contains a relative pronoun, the other 
the antecedent; as, "I shall see you when (at the time at which) you 
come;" "The book is not where (in the place in which) I left it." 

A conjunctive adverb modifies two verbs; of the two adjuncts 

forming the equivalent that which contains the antecedent modifies 

one verb, and that which contains the relative modifies the other. 

Remarks.— 1. In reality these words are of the nature of the relative with the 
antecedent omitted, the antecedent adverb or adjunct being omitted. " I shall see 
you when you come" ="I shall see you then (at the time) when (at which) you 

come '" -It placed was 

There where the mouldered earth had caved the bank." — Spenser. 
"You are transported by calamity 

Thither where more awaits you." — Shakespeare. 
"When Greek joined Greek then was the tug of war." — Nat. Lee. 
2. The adverbs used in this way are such as when, while, as, where, wherever, 
whenever, wheresoever. 



-•' In this country these two words are generally written as one ; in England they 
are properly kept separate. There is no greater propriety in making one word of 
for ever than there would be in making one word of for aye or of for ever and ever. 
If we are to write ere long as one word, as some do (erelong), we should write before 
long in the same way (beforelong). 



ADVERBS. 149 

3. It is to be observed that but few of these words are always conjunctive 
adverbs. Some of them are sometimes used instead of adjuncts containing inter- 
rogative or indefinite pronouns; as, "When (at what time) will he come?" "Tell 
me when (at what time) he will come." 

4. It is easy to distinguish conjunctive adverbs from others. If the adverb is 
equivalent to two adjuncts, it is a conjunctive adverb; if it is not equivalent to two 
adjuncts, it is not a conjunctive adverb. Many writers on grammar seem unable to 
see the distinction. '"I know not how it is done.' Here how is equivalent to the 
manner in which. The first part, ' the manner,' is the object of know, and the second, 
' in which,' is the adjunct of Hs done: "— Bullions' s Anal, and Prac. English Grammar. 
If how were equivalent to the manner in which, it would not be a conjunctive adverb 
according to the writer's own definition ; for the manner is not an adjunct. But how 
is not equivalent to the manner in which, but to in what manner, and the object of know 
is the whole proposition, how it is done. " I saw how a pin is made." — KerVs Common- 
School Grammar. How is not a conjunctive adverb. What did I see ? How a pin is 
made. " Can you tell how he manages to recite so well ?" "No one knows when the 
world will end." " I know where Patagonia is."— Weld and Quackenbos's New English 
Grammar. Not one of the italicised words is a conjunctive adverb. " I do not know 
why I was sent, how I can cross the river, where I am to go, or when I must return." — 
Quackenbos's Eng. Grammar. There is not a single conjunctive adverb here. There is 
of course a close connection between the transitive verb know and the dependent 
propositions, because these propositions are the objects of the verb; but the con- 
junctive quality is not in the adverb. " ' No one knew how to use gold more effectually 
than Philip, king of Macedon.' The leading verb knew is modified by the adverb 
how, which is itself modified by the infinitive to use" — Quackenbos's Eng. Grammar. 
The confusion here is remarkable. Knew is not modified by how, but by its object 
how to use gold; and to use is modified by how, not how by to use. "I know not 
whither he has gone." — Mason's English Grammar. Whither is not a conjunctive 
adverb. "'I know when he wrote the letter;' when connects the clauses I know and 
he wrote, and modifies know and wrote."— Burfs Practical English Grammar. When 
does not modify know— does not tell the time of knowing. The two propositions 
are connected as verb and object. What do I know? When he wrote the letter. 

5. When the prepositions after, before, ere, till, until, since are placed before propo- 
sitions they are generally regarded as conjunctive adverbs ; but it is better to regard 
them as prepositions having as objects noun-propositions instead of nouns. " I saw 
him before his departure ;" " I saw him before he departed:' The preposition without 
(in the sense of except, unless) was formerly much used before propositions ; as, " I 
will not go without he goes." (See foot-note, p. 187, and Rule III, Remark 4.) 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following adverbs are conjunctive adverbs? 

The book is where you laid it. "Where did you lay it? Do you 
know where you laid it? It was lying on the table when I saw it. 
When did you see it? I do not know when I saw it. Stay while I 
am gone. You may play after I am gone. Do not play as you go to 
school. When will he return? Can you tell when he will return? 
He rode the horse before he bought it. He reads whenever (at any 
time at which) he can find an apportunity. He sleeps wherever night 
overtakes him. There might they see whence Po and Ister came. 
Tell how he formed your shining frame. I know why he did it. 



150 ETYMOLOGY. 



COMPAEISON OF ADVEKBS. 

A few adverbs are compared by adding er and est; as, soon, sooner, 
soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; fast, faster, fastest. 

The following are irregularly compared: badly or ill, worse, worst; 
far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest; little, less, least; much, 
more, most; well, better, best. Rather is the comparative of an obsolete 
positive rath, rathe, soon, early. The positive rathe is used by Ten- 
nyson : "Rathe she rose." 

With many adverbs more and most may be used as with adjectives; 
as, more frequently, most frequently ; but more and most should be 
regarded as themselves modifiers, not as parts of the adverbs which 
they modify. 

PAUSING EXERCISES. 

She sings sweetly. He behaved badly. Beasts should be treated 
kindly. Be more cautious. Act more wisely. I have seen him often. 
He writes very rapidly. He studies when you play. 

I know not whence you come. "Where the tree falls there will it 
lie. How did he act? Nobly. Where does he live? There. The 
oftener I see him the more I like him.. He is a very worthy man. 
Perseverance generally succeeds. 

Improve time as it flies. Live while you live. He is very easily 
offended. She has been liberally educated. The vine still clings to 
the moldering wall. Where vice prevails misery abounds. 

Where ignorance is bliss 

'T is folly to be wise. — Gray. 

"She sings sweetly." 
Sweetly is an adverb — it modifies the verb sings. 
Rule. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

" He studies when you play." 

When is a conjunctive adverb — it is equivalent to two adjuncts, at 
the time and at which; it modifies the verbs studies and play. 
Rule.— Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is an adverb? Mention some adverbs of time. Of place. Of degree. 
Of manner. Of cause, reason, inference. Of addition and exclusion. Of affirma- 
tion, negation, or doubt. What is a conjunctive adverb? How many verbs does a 
conjunctive adverb modify? Are adverbs ever compared? How is badly or M 
compared? Far? Little? Much? Well? What are more "and most when tliey 
modify adverbs? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 151 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect propositions or 
similar parts of propositions ; as, ' ' Magnanimity in politics is 
not seldom the truest wisdom, and a great empire and little 
minds go ill together." — Burke. 

Here the first and connects two propositions; the second and con- 
nects two logical subjects, a great empire and little minds. 

Conjunctions, besides connecting propositions, may connect — 

1. Nouns in the same construction; as, "Peter and John went to the 
temple;" "He spoke to Mary and me." 

2. Adjectives or participles belonging to the same noun ; as, " My 
father gave me serious and excellent advice;" "The soul's dark cottage, 
battered and decayed. 11 

3. Adjuncts modifying the same word; as, "He finds them in the 
woods and by the streams." 

4. Adverbs modifying the same word; as, ""We are fearfully and. 
wonderfully made." 

5. Prepositions having the same object; as, "He walks up and down 
the street." 

6. Yerbs having the same subject; as, "Birds chirp and sing." 

7. Yerbs having the same object; as, " They gather and eat the fruit." 

8. Infinitives in the same construction ; as, " They go out to see and 
be seen." 

9. Gerunds in the same construction ; as, " He is engaged in assessing 
and collecting taxes." 

Remarks. — Some grammarians say that conjunctions always connect proposi- 
tions, " Peter and John went to the temple " being equivalent to " Peter went to the 
temple," and "John went to the temple." But there are sentences which can not be 
analyzed in this way; as, "John and Mary are a handsome couple;" " Two and 
three make five ;" "A great empire and little minds go ill together." We can not 
say "John is a handsome couple, and Mary is a handsome couple." 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes, coordinative and 
subordinative. 

A Coordinative Conjunction connects propositions, or 
parts of propositions, of equal rank; as, "Art is long, and 
time is fleeting;" "Rhoda and Lila have come;" "James or 
Edward will gain the prize;" "Laura will go, but Alice 
will stay." 



152 ETYMOLOGY. 

A Subordinative Conjunction connects a modifying 
proposition to the modified part of the principal proposition; 
as, "Kepent, lest ye perish;" "As the wind is favorable, the 
ship will soon sail." 

And, both, either, or, neither, nor, but are the principal coordinative 
conjunctions. 

For, since, as, because, if, whether, though, although, unless, lest are 
the principal subordinative conjunctions. 

Both is used with and, either with or, and neither with nor, to mark 
the connection more forcibly; as, "Both John and James were there;" 
"Either John or James was there;" "Neither John nor James was 
there." 

Whether and or are sometimes correlative; as, "I do not know 
whether he will go or stay." 

Remarks. — 1. Both was originally merely a limiting adjective referring to two 
objects ; as, "John and James were both present ;" "Both [persons] John and James 
were present;" "He lost both [things] his money and his character." From its 
emphatic character in such sentences both seemed to give force to the connective 
idea expressed by and, and this secondary office has often overshadowed the original 
meaning, so that the word has been employed to mark a connection between more 
than two; as, "To whom both heven and erthe and see is seen." — Chaucer. "He 
assisted both the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian." — Johnson. " They who both 
made peace with France, composed the internal dissensions of the country, and 
restored its free constitution."— Brougham. "Both he and they and you."— Shakes- 
peare. "Both man and bird and beast." — Coleridge. Either and neither were also 
originally limiting adjectives, each referring to two objects ; but they have come to 
be used as conjunctions marking the connection between several objects ; as, "Either 
so distant, so little, or so inconsiderable." — Addison. "Neither death nor life nor angels 
nor principalities nor powers ."-^-English Bible. 

2. The word that is often used before propositions ; as, " He is a fool in that he 
believes others to be as deceitful as he ;"="He is a fool in that [thing] he believes 
others to be as deceitful as he." "He was punished for that [thing] he had broken 
a positive law," In each of these sentences that is a limiting adjective belonging to 
a noun understood, the following proposition being in apposition with the noun. 
When that is omitted the proposition itself stands as the object of the preposition. 
When Shylock says of Antonio, "I hate him for he is a Christian," he means "I 
hate him for being a Christian," for being a preposition having he is a Christian for 
its object. (See foot-note, p. 206.) 

3. Such prepositions as before, after, since have come to be used directly before 
propositions by the omission of that. "After that I had seen him once I did not wish 
to see him again ;" "Before that Philip called thee I saw thee." That is, after that 
[thing] I had seen him once ; before that [thing] expressed by the proposition Philip 
called thee. By the omission of that the following proposition stands after the prep- 
osition as its object. "After I had seen him once;" "Before Philip called thee." 
Prepositions thus used before propositions have precisely the same meaning that 
they have when used before nouns. 

4. These remarks lead to the understanding of the true nature of such words as 
save, saving, except, but, provided, if, though, notwithstanding, etc. 






CONJUNCTIONS. 



153 



" Thou born to eat and be despised and die, 
Even as the beasts that perish, save that thou 
Hadst a more splendid trough and wider sty."— Byron. 

That [thing], thou hadst a more splendid trough and wider sty being safe (saved, 
excepted). 

" There is no difference, except that some are heavier than others." That 
[thing], some are heavier than others, except (being excepted). 

" What remains but that the sentence pass ?" What remains be out that [thing] 
the sentence pass ? Thing subject of the verb be in the imperative ; the proposition 
the sentence pass in apposition with thing. 

" He is still rich, notwithstanding his losses ;" " He is still rich, notwithstanding 
that he has lost so much ;" " He is still rich, notwithstanding he has lost so much ;" 
"He has lost much; he is, notwithstanding, rich." Withstanding in these passages 
is a participle modified by the adverb not, and having a noun or a proposition as 
nominative absolute. He is still rich, his losses not withstanding. He is still rich, 
that he has lost so much not withstanding ; or that [thing] he has lost so much. He 
is still rich, he has lost so much not withstanding. He has lost much ; he is, not 
withstanding this (this thing not withstanding), rich. 

5. The imperative mood, the imperfect participle, and the passive participle 
may be used with propositions (either with or without that) ; but this use does not 
make conjunctions of them. "Admit that phosphorus is an essential part of the 
brain, is not phosphorus to be derived from other food than fish ?" "Admitting that 
phosphorus," etc, "Admitted that phosphorus," etc. Admit is a verb in the imper- 
ative mood, having you or we as subject ; admitting is an imperfect participle belonging 
to roe, you, or some other general word ; admitted is a passive participle belonging to 
thing understood (or, it may be said, to the whole proposition introduced by that). 
In the same way may be used grant, granting, granted; suppose, supposing, supposed; 
seeing, saving, assuming, etc. Provided has been called a conjunction ; but it is simply 
a participle. " This act provides that no injury shall be done to others ;" " It is pro- 
vided that no injury shall be done to others ;" "Provided that no injury shall be 
done to others;" "That no injury shall be done to others being provided." 

6. If, formerly gif,-- is from the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. Gif is still 
retained in the Scottish dialect, as in the following passage, in which if and gif are 
used in the same sense : 

" Yet if your catalogue be fou, 
I 'se no insist; 
But gif ye want ae friend that 's true, 
I 'm on your list." — Burns. 

This word is said by Home Tooke to be in the second person of the imperative 
mood. " If he said so, it is true "=" Give (grant, admit, concede) he said so, it is 
true." Gin, evidently a contraction of the participle given (Anglo-Saxon gifen),-\ is 
found in the Scottish dialect ; as, 

"Gin I had kend he was your son, 
He had ne'er been slayne by me." — Ballad of Gil Morrice. 

u Gin ilka man had back his ain, 
Of it you suld be heir."— Ballad of Pause Foodrage. 

* The anglo-Saxon g was often sounded like y ; and it is from this circumstance 
that such words as ge, geoc, in Anglo-Saxon have become ye, yoke, in English. From 
gif, pronounced yif, it would be easy to drop the comparatively weak sound of y. 

fThe v is often dropped from this word; as, "I wad hae gi'en them off my 
hurdies." — Burns. 



154 ETYMOLOGY. 

That is, given I had known he was your son, he had never been slain by me ; given 
every man had back his own, you should be heir of it. This use of gin leads to the 
suspicion that gif is not the imperative, but the participle gifen apocopated. 

Writers on comparative philology, like the devotees of other new sciences, 
sometimes push their principles to extremes. In the "New Illustrated Edition" of 
"Webster's Dictionary if is presented as a " v. t. (verb transitive) but commonly called 
a conjunction." "The Anglo-Saxon gif," the editor goes on to say, "has been explained 
by Home Tooke, and by others after him, as simply the imperative, second person 
singular, of the verb gifan, to give. If would in that case be equivalent to grant, allow, 
admit. Thus, if thou wilt, — that is, give the fact that thou wilt, — thou canst make me 
whole ; if John shall arrive in season, — grant, suppose that he shall arrive, — I will send 
him with a message. This etymology is plausible in itself, and is favored by the old use 
of that after if; as, if that John shall arrive, etc." But at this point the editor, having the 
fear of the comparative philologists before his eyes, suddenly, like Sir Boyle Roche's 
politician, "turns his back on himself" and says, " But it [the etymology just given] 
is not supported by the form and use of the corresponding words in other Teutonic 
languages, and it must therefore be looked upon as uncertain at least, if not as improb- 
able." The principle here assumed, that no language has any peculiarities of its own, 
any thing different from other languages of the same great family, is shown to be 
absurd by the mere statement of it. It should be observed that gif is not derived from 
gif, but that it is gif And gif is give (giv), whether it is regarded as the imperative or 
as the participle gifen (given) apocopated, there being no greater difference between 
the sounds of/ and v than there is between the two sounds of th. ' With is the same 
word whether pronounced with the sound of th as in thin or with that of th as in 
this; nephew is the same word, whether it is pronounced nefu or nevu. On account 
of the failure of other Teutonic languages to use words corresponding to give in the 
same way we are to deny that gif is gif and that " that that is is " ! 

7. Though is said to be from the Anglo-Saxon theah, admit, assume ; but is it not 
from the participle thought (Anglo-Saxon thoht)1 "Though (thought, supposed, 
assumed) he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" " Though (thought, supposed, 
assumed, considered) that he was worthy, he was wise." — Chaucer. 

8. In a regular discourse all the parts are connected in some way, but the name 
conjunction is applied to such words only as can not be placed in any other class. For 
this reason, in like manner, in addition, by the way, at the same time, in accordance with 
this, and many other phrases mark connection ; but it is not proper to call them 
conjunctions. 

9. For as much as (for much in that degree in which, sometimes written foras- 
much as), in as much as {inasmuch as), in so much that (insomuch that), as well as, and 
other phrases of the kind may for the sake of convenience be called connective 
phrases. But the separate words have each their own meaning ; as, " John read as 
well (properly) as James;" "John as well (truly) as James read." The adverb 
well has in the latter sentence a different meaning from that which it has in the 
former, but the construction in the two sentences is the same. "His brother writes 
as well as he." This may be taken in two different senses by giving different mean- 
ings to well; but, whatever meaning is given to the word, the grammatical construc- 
tion is not changed. 

10. The adverbs yet, also, still, otherwise, moreover, furthermore, besides, therefore, 
wherefore, else, hence, thence, likewise, nevertheless, accordingly, consequently, etc., are 
sometimes called conjunctions. " Though he made great efforts, yet (in spite of 
this) he failed." Yet, adverb modifying failed. " He made great efforts ; still he 
failed." "He is a chemist, and he is also (in addition to this) a poet." Also, 
adverb modifying is. "He is likewise a poet." "He is moreover a poet." "He is 
furthermore a poet." "He neglected his business, therefore (for that reason) he 
failed." Therefore, adverb modifying failed. "Wherefore (for which reason) he 



CONJUNCTIONS. 155 

failed." "Hence (for this reason) he failed." "Whence (for which reason) he failed." 
"Thence he failed." "Consequently he failed." "Accordingly he failed." " I have lost 
my money ; otherwise (under other circumstances) I could help you." " I have lost 
my money; else I could help you." " He was forbidden to go ; nevertheless (not the 
less) he went." Besides is more properly a preposition. "He is a chemist; he is 
besides [this] a poet." 

11. In such sentences as the following so and as are by some regarded as 
conjunctions: "She is as amiable as her sister;" "As two is to four, so is five to 
ten ;" " No lamb was e'er so mild as he ;" " He acted as he was directed to act." In 
these sentences as and so are adverbs. She is amiable in the degree in which her 
sister is amiable. Five is to ten in the proportion in which two is to four. No lamb 
was e'er mild in the degree in which he is mild. He acted in the manner in which he 
was directed to act. 

EXERCISES. 

What do the following conjunctions connect? 

Andrew and Thomas went to the river. Virtue is praised and 
neglected. The moon and stars were shining. You will be despised, 
and he will be honored. George and James will go. George or James 
will go. Both George and James will go. Either George or James 
will go. Neither George nor James will go. He is happy because he 
is good. Because he is good he is happy. John will go, but Mary 
will stay. He was poor, though he might have been rich. Though he 
might have been rich, he was poor. Repent, lest ye perish. I will not 
go, unless you will stay. Unless you will stay, I will not go. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 
The preceding exercises may be parsed in full. 

"Andrew and Thomas went to the river.' 7 

And is a conjunction — it connects two nouns, Andrew and Thomas, 
in the same construction. 

Rule. — Conjunctions connect propositions or similar parts of propositions. 

"You will be despised, and he will be honored. ' 

And is a conjunction — it connects the two propositions, you will be 
despised and he will be honored. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is a conjunction ? Can you give a sentence in which a conjunction connects 
nouns in the same construction? Adjectives in the same construction? Adjuncts 
modifying the same word? Adverbs modifying the same word? Prepositions 
having the same object? Verbs having the same subject? Verbs having the 
same object? Infinitives in the same construction? Gerunds in the same con- 
struction ? Into what two classes are conjunctions divided ? What is a coordinative 
conjunction? A subordinative conjunction? Which are the principal coordinative 
conjunctions ? The principal subordinative conjunctions ? How are both, eithei', and 
neither used? What two conjunctions are mentioned as correlative ? 



156 ETYMOLOGY. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word used in exclamation and having 
no grammatical connection; as, "0/ what a fall was there!" 

The following are some of the principal interjections: 0, oh, ah, 
alas, alack, ha, fudge, pish, tush, pshaw, poh, pooh, fie, ho, holla, hollo, 
halloo, lo, aha, hail, huzza, hurrah, tut, humph, heigh-ho, heyday, hist, 
bravo, adieu, avaunt. 

Some words belonging to other parts of speech are called interjec- 
tions when they are uttered in an unconnected and forcible manner; 
as, Strange! what! behold! off! aiuay ! farewell ! hush! whist! 

Remarks. — 1. Bravo is an Italian adjective. Adieu is composed of two French 
words a and dieu, meaning to God [I commend you]. O dear me! is a corruption of 
the Italian phrase, O Bio mio, O my God ! 

2. The word interjection is from the Latin interjicere, to throw between or among, 
and interjections derive their name from being regarded as thrown among the parts 
of a discourse without being grammatically connected with any part. 

3. Some writers make a distinction between O and oh, using O before the name 
of the person addressed, and oh in other cases; as, "Hear, O Israel!" "Oh! how 
happy I am!" But this distinction is generally disregarded, and oh is gradually 
going out of use. 

4. An interjection, like the cry of an animal, expresses the meaning of a whole 
sentence. When a child that strikes its head against a table cries "O!" it means 
"I am hurt." In "Alas! those happy days are no more!" alas means "I am sad," 
or something equivalent. 

This fact furnishes an explanation of such expressions as "O for a lodge in 
some vast wilderness!" "O that I had the wings of a dove!" "Alas that thou 
shouldst die!" When he uses such expressions the speaker has in his mind the 
sentence whose meaning is expressed by the interjection, and he in effect forgets its 
character as an interjection and makes of it a leading proposition. Any explanation 
that supposes an ellipsis, such as " O ! [I wish] for a lodge in some vast wilderness !" 
is unsatisfactory. There is not an ellipsis of I wish, but is used for I wish, " Fie 
upon your law "=" Shame be upon your law." 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

" He died, alas ! in early youth." 

Alas is an interjection — it is used in exclamation and has no gram- 
matical connection. 

Rule.— Interjections have no grammatical connection with other words. 

He died, alas! in early youth. Ah! then and there was hurrying 
to and fro. O ! make her a grave where the sunbeams rest. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is an interjection ? Name some of the principal interjections. When are 
words belonging to other parts of speech called interjections ? 



SAME WORD IN DIFFERENT CLASSES. 157 



SAME WORD IN DIFFERENT CLASSES. 

Many words belong to more than one part of speech ; iron, 
for instance, may be either a noun, a verb, or an adjective; as, 
"Iron is a hard metal;" "To iron clothes;" "An iron rod." 

EXERCISES. 
Name the parts of speech to which the words in italics belong : 

He is your equal. Equal rights. The Gauls equal the Britons in 
bravery. James was his rival for the crown. They have rival claims. 
They rival each other. They counterfeit grief. Counterfeit coin. It 
is a counterfeit. He paid fancy prices for them. This struck his fancy. 
You fancy riches more. He is the worst boy in the school. When the 
worst comes to the worst. They worst their enemies. A worse chair 
I have never seen. She reads worse than ever. He is now a better 
boy. He reads better than she does. Can they better their condition? 
To get the better of an enemy. That 's an ill phrase. Ill fares the 
land. There is some ill a-brewing to my rest. 

The way was long. I long for a change. Long live the king. The 
right hand. He has a right to the property. He acted right in that 
matter Let us right the injured man. You wrong me, Brutus. He 
gave a icrong answer. Friend, I do thee no wrong. He read the pas- 
sage wrong. The stream is very rapid. He is the very man. He is 
less idle than she. My happiness is less than yours. The last day of 
the week. It can not last longer. "When was it she last walked? The 
cobbler is not to go beyond his last. His back is weak. He made the 
horse back. Do not look back. He lives somewhere in the back set- 
tlements. 

He is reading a poem. This is pleasant reading. She is writing a 
letter. The writing was illegible. No man is perfectly happy. He is 
no better than he should be. This is the man that I saw. I have seen 
that book. For a while he was very diligent. They while away the 
time. Make hay while the sun shines. This is his second attempt. A 
second in a duel. He will succeed if you second him. He reads well. 
Is your father well 6 / See the water well out of the ground. The 
bucket is in the well. 

Put on your coat. Put the book on the table. Up rose the sun, 
and up rose Emily. The squirrel ran up the tree. 

The best boy. I love him best. I will do my best. His clothes fit 
him well. This is a fit time. This is a good fit. 



158 SYNTAX, 



SYNTAX. 



SENTENCE— PROPOSITION— SUBJECT— PKEDICATE. 

Syntax treats of the structure of sentences. 

A Sentence is an arrangement of words in one or more 
propositions to express a thought; as, "John learns;" "John 
learns when he studies." 

A Proposition is an arrangement of words containing a 
subject and a predicate; " John learns ; " "He studies." 

The Subject denotes that of which something is affirmed ; 
as, "John learns." 

The Predicate denotes that which is affirmed; as, "John 

feams." 

The word affirm is here taken in a general sense, applying to ques- 
tions, commands, entreaties, and exhortations. 

Remark. — The name of the person addressed forms no part of the proposition, 
being employed merely to call attention to what is contained in the proposition; 
as, "William, John learns." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the person or thing (or persons or things) spoken of in each of the 
following sentences, and then tell what is said of that person or thing (or those 
persons or things) : 

Mary learns. Thomas reads. James studies. Mary learns rapidly. 
James studies diligently. Thomas reads well. Thomas reads poetry 
well. Mary learns very rapidly. James studies arithmetic very dili- 
gently. Mary learns grammar and music very rapidly. 

Books please. Good books please. Some good books please. Boys 
run. Those boys run. Those three young boys run. Kain fell. A 
heavy rain fell. The moon shines. The stars fade. Ducks swim. 
Sparrows fly. 

The moon shines bright. The stars fade from the sky. The sun 
sets in the west. The sparrows fly from tree to tree. The ducks swim 
from shore to shore. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 
A heavy rain fell during the night. Nine beautiful ducks swam from 
shore to shore. 



SENTENCE, PROPOSITION, SUBJECT, PREDICATE. 159 

A wise son makes a glad father. Theodore went from London to 
Paris. The thrush sang sweetly all the morning. Joseph recited his 
lesson. Joseph recited his lesson two hours ago. George is coming. 
George is coming to pay us a visit. Four dear friends are coming to 
pay us a visit next week. 

The boys use steel pens. All the boys in the school use steel pens. 
This boy's name is John. That girl's name is Sarah Jane Roland. 
John, "William, Andrew, and Robert have gone to play. The moon 
and stars are shining. Thomas studies and plays well. 

2. Point out the subjects and the predicates in the preceding sentences. 

3. Point out the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences : 
Note.— This may be done in writing. 

MODELS. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

Emma studies. 

His daughter Emma studies diligently. 

Emma studies. George rides. Virtue ennobles. Children play. 
Vice degrades. Trees grow. Snow falls. Ice melts. "Winds blow. 
Caroline sings. Edith jumps. Eliza sews. Robert sleeps. Andrew 
skates. Kate runs. 

Emma studies diligently. George rides well. Virtue ennobles 
man. Children play in the yard. Vice degrades its victims. Trees 
grow in summer. Snow falls in winter. Ice melts in warm weather. 
Winds blow all the year. Caroline sings some beautiful songs. Edith 
jumped over the log. Eliza sews very industriously. 

Kate rides every Friday. Robert sleeps on the large sofa. Andrew 
skates with great ease. In summer trees grow. In warm weather ice 
melts. In winter snow falls. Diana is great. Great is Diana. The 
lofty trees of that forest are beautiful. Beautiful are the lofty trees of 
that forest. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The knell of parting 
day the curfew tolls. The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea. O'er 
the lea slowly wind the lowing herds. Slowly o'er the lea wind 
the lowing herds. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 
Homeward the plowman plods his weary way. His weary way the 
plowman homeward plods. 

4. Form a predicate for each of the following subjects : 

Models. — Edward speaks. The streets are muddy. 

Edward .... The streets .... Eire .... The wind .... 
Rain .... The grass .... The ice ... . Snow .... The 
boys .... The river .... Horses .... Cows .... George 
.... That little girl .... That naughty boy .... 



160 SYNTAX. 

* 5. Form a subject for each of the following predicates: 

Models. — Mary runs. Grass grows. 

.... runs grows swim has met with a 

misfortune was king of England learns grammar and 

arithmetic is at the head of his class created the world 

in six days roars. 

LOGICAL AND GEAMMATICAL SUBJECT AND 

PEEDICATE. 

Both the subject and the predicate may be either logical 
or grammatical. 

The Logical Subject denotes that of which something 
is affirmed, whether expressed by one word or by more; as, 
"Winds blow;" "The cold winds blow;" "The cold winds of 
winter blow." 

The Logical Predicate denotes that which is affirmed, 
whether expressed by one word or by more; as "The winds 
blow" "The winds blow violently;" "The winds blow violently 
in winter" 

The Grammatical Subject is the principal noun of the 
logical subject. 

Thus, in this logical subject, the cold winds of winter, winds is the 
grammatical subject, being the noun which the other parts of the log- 
ical subject are employed to modify. 

The Grammatical Predicate is the principal verb of the 
logical predicate. (See Note n.) 

Thus, in this logical predicate, blow violently in winter, blow is the 
grammatical predicate, being the verb which the other parts of the 
logical predicate are employed to modify. 

If the logical subject consists of but one noun, the gram- 
matical subject is, of course, the same as the logical subject. 

Thus, in the proposition, "Winds blow," winds is both the logical 
and the grammatical subject. 

If the logical predicate consists of but one verb, the gram- 
matical predicate is, of course, the same as the logical predicate. 



SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE. 161 

Thus, in the proposition, " Winds Mow," bloik is both the logical and 
the grammatical predicate. 

If the grammatical subject is not a noun, it is always some 
word, or combination of words, equivalent to a noun. 

Accordingly, the grammatical subject may be — 

1. A noun; as, "Slander is base;" "It is base." 

2. An infinitive or a gerund; as, "To slander is base;" "Slandering 
is base." 

3. A proposition; as, "That men should slander is base;" "For men 
to slander is base." 

When an infinitive or a proposition is the subject the predi- 
cate is often placed first and introduced by the pronoun it; as, 
"It is base to slander;" "It is base that men should slander;" "It 
is base for men to slander." 

In such sentences it is not the real subject, being employed merely 
to introduce the sentence in a particular manner. In anal}' sis it may 
be disregarded. Thus, in the proposition, "It is base to slander," the 
subject is to slander, and the predicate is is base. 

Remark. — This word may, however, be regarded in analysis by considering the 
infinitive or the proposition as in apposition with it; as, "It, to slander, is base;" 
that is, " This thing, to slander, is base." 

The word there is often used to introduce a sentence when the 
predicate is placed before the subject; as, "There are five men here." 
In such cases there is not used as an adverb of place, and it forms 
really no part of either the subject or the predicate. "There are five 
men here" is the same proposition as "Five men are here;" "There is 
no one who does not know this", is the same proposition as "ISTo one 
who does not know this is (exists)." 

Remarks. — 1. It is probable that this idiom had its origin in" the use of there as an 
adverb of place at the beginning of propositions; as, "There is a man;" "There 
comes a man ;" " There lives a man." The adverb there in such constructions serves 
not only to denote in that place, but also to permit the introduction of the verb before 
the subject; and by degrees we have come to use it often for the latter purpose 
alone, losing sight of the idea of place. In the changes of language such things 
often occur. 

2. A somewhat similar change has taken place in regard to that as employed in 
such sentences as " That men should slander is base," in which that serves merely 
to introduce the proposition. It is not employed as a conjunction, since it does not 
connect the proposition in which it stands to any thing else. Some regard it as a 
limiting adjective, asserting that the proposition in question is equivalent to "That 
thing, men should slander, is base." But after inserting thing we may repeat that; 
as, " That thing, that men should slander, is base." 

In such constructions that was originally a limiting adjective; and such sen- 
tences as "I believe that to slander is base," " That men should slander is base," 

14 



162 SYNTAX. 

were, according to the original meaning of the word, equivalent to " I believe that 
thing, to slander, is base," " That thing, men should slander, is base." The meaning 
of this word as thus used being such that it always pointed forward to the following 
proposition, it served as a kind of connective in such sentences as " I believe that 
to slander is base ;" this connective character causing the adjective character grad- 
ually to be lost sight of. And in such sentences as "That men should slander is 
base," the close connection of that with the following proposition caused it to be 
regarded as incorporated with the proposition or as forming a mere introduction to it. 
But a word in changing its meaning may still retain some traces of the original 
meaning, as when in Fouque's "Undine" a water-spirit changes to a cascade the 
cascade still presents some features of the spirit. 

3. The use of for in such sentences as " For men to slander is base," " It is base 
for men to slander," " It is good for us to study," may be regarded as having resulted 
insensibly from its use as a preposition. Take, for instance, the sentence, " To study 
is good for us," equivalent to " That we should study is good for us," in which for 
is a preposition having us for its object. If we place the predicate before the subject, 
this sentence becomes " It is good for us to study," equivalent to " It is good for us 
that we should study," in which for is still a preposition. As us in this sentence 
denotes the persons who are to study, the word in the course of time came to be 
regarded as connected with the following to study instead of the preceding for, the 
sentence being then equivalent to "That we should study is good." In this case 
for, having lost its object, would lose its character as a preposition and become a 
mere introduction to the following proposition. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the logical and the grammatical subject in each of the following 
propositions : 

LOGICAL SUBJECT. MODELS. GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 

Pipe peaches. Peaches. 

A beautiful prospect. Prospect. 

The village preacher's modest mansion. Mansion. 

Kipe peaches are delicious. A beautiful prospect is spread before us. 
"Wise men avoid temptation. Great men often do wrong. No man is 
perfect. The village preacher's modest mansion rose. No humbler 
resting-place was nigh. 

The humble boon was soon obtained. The minstrel's voice began to 
fail. Pull slyly smiled the observant page. The cordial nectar of the 
bowl swelled his old veins. Eternal blessings crown my earliest friend. 
Pound his dwelling guardian saints attend. The consciousness of a 
well-spent life is pleasant. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of 
wisdom. 

To study strengthens the mind. It strengthens the mind to study. 
It is good for us to study. To run fatigues me. It fatigues me to run. 
It is necessary that we should study. It is necessary for us to study. 
To sneer is a common practice with him. It is a common practice 
with him to sneer. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 163 

Six boys are here. There are six boys here. There is wisdom in 
his looks. A large number was present. There was a large number 
present. There were five loaves in the basket. There came to the 
beach a poor exile of Erin. There was dew on his thin clothes. 

2. Point out the logical and the grammatical predicate in each of the following 
propositions : 

LOGICAL PREDICATE. MODELS. GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 

Delivered four orations against Catiline. Delivered. 

Was expelled from his kingdom. Was expelled. 

Cicero delivered four orations against Catiline. James was expelled 
from his kingdom. William governed England. John preached in 
the wilderness. The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. James 
walks very fast. Washington is called the Father of his Country. 
Time is money. The love of money is the root of all evil. 

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECT AND PKEDICATE. 

Both the subject and the predicate may be either simple or 
compound. 

A Simple Subject is one which contains a single gram- 
matical subject, whether modified or unmodified; as, "Winds 
roar;" "The rough winds roar." 

A Simple Predicate is one which contains a single gram- 
matical predicate, whether modified or unmodified; as, "The 
winds roar;" "The winds roar around the house." 

A Compound Subject consists of two or more simple sub- 
jects having one predicate; as, "The winds and waves roar;" 
"The rough winds and the stormy waves roar." 

A Compound Predicate consists of two or more simple 
predicates having one subject; as, "The winds roar and 
whistle-" "The winds roar around the house and whistle at 
the door." 

EXERCISES. 
1. Point out the simple and the compound subjects in the following propositions: 

Alexander and Caesar were great conquerors. Caesar was a Koman. 
Alexander was king of Macedon. Two and three make five. The 
moon and stars shone. Life is short. The longest life of man is short. 
William or Edward must go. 



164 SYNTAX. 

Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon were historians. A storm arose. A 
great storm arose. A great storm of wind and rain arose. Virtue and 
vice are opposites. A multitude assembled. A multitude of men and 
women assembled. Six and three make nine. 

Pestilence and famine followed the war. A fatal pestilence and a 
terrible famine followed the war. The price of flour and meat rose 
rapidly. [A large number of boys and girls appeared. A rolling 
stone gathers no moss. 

2. Point out the simple and the compound predicates in the following propo- 
sitions : 

John desires books. John desires to learn. The devils believe and 

tremble. The bird chirps and sings. Ella longs for your return. He 

left his home and went to a foreign land. Loda comes in the roar of a 

thousand storms and scatters battle from his eyes. 

3. Form compound subjects for the following predicates: 

. . . ^ make seven desire to learn have gone to 

town shone went up to the temple. .... are riding 

in the field fight visit us frequently have lost 

their books are precious metals are pleasant com- 
panions. 

4. Form compound predicates for the following subjects: 

Birds .... Flowers .... Horses .... Mary .... The 
soldier .... Babies .... The boy .... 

DECLAEATIYE, INTERROGATIVE, IMPERATIVE, AKD 
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

Sentences are either declarative, interrogative, imperative, or 
exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence is a sentence containing an 
assertion; as, "That boy learns;" "That boy does not learn." 

An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence containing a 
question; as, "Does that boy learn?" "Does not that boy 
learn?" 

An Imperative Sentence is a sentence containing a 

command, an entreaty, a permission, or an exhortation; as, 

"Saddle the horse;" "Save my child;" "Love virtue." 

In imperative sentences the subject when it is of the second person 
is generally omitted. The subject of each of the preceding sentences 
is you or thou understood. 



SENTENCES. 165 

An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence containing an 
exclamation; as, "How that boy learns!" 

Remark. — Declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences may be uttered 
with great force; as, "John rides that wild horse!" "Does John ride that wild 
horse !" " The foe has come !" " Make haste !" " Rouse ye, Romans !" " Was it not 
strange !" But this force does not convert such sentences to exclamatory sentences. 
Exclamatory sentences differ inform from the other kinds ; as, " What a wild horse 
he rides !" 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the declarative, the interrogative, the imperative, and the exclamatory 
sentences in the following : 

Thomas went to New Albany. Did Thomas go to New Albany? 
"Where does Edward reside? He resides in Jeffersonville. How silly 
that fellow is! Have you a knife? Go to bed. Go. Depart from evil. 
What a sharp knife you have ! How did you make that mistake? Go 
not to Wittenberg. Thou comest. Dost thou come? Comest thou? 
Come you in peace here? How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard? He 
did not go to Wittenberg. Horror and doubt distract his troubled 
thoughts. Deliver us from evil. Lead us not into temptation. Learn 
to labor and to wait. Be a hero in the strife. 

Modifications. 

A word or a collection of words is said to modify a word 
when it serves to show the extent of the application of that 
word ; as, "John is good." Here the verb is, which asserts 
being generally, is modified by the adjective good, which limits 
the being to a certain state. 

A noun may be modified — 

1. By a noun in apposition ; as, "John the Baptist;" " I, the governor" 

2. By a noun in the possessive case; as, "Milton's poems." 

3. By an adjunct; as, "Devotion to study;" "Friendship for me." 

4. By an adjective or a participle; as, "Envious time;" "The stars;" 
11 Error wounded;" "A mistake concerning this matter." 

5. By an infinitive; as, "A desire to learn" 

6. By a proposition ; as, "The boy who studies" 

A verb may be modified — 

1. By a noun in the same case as the subject; as, "It is he." 

Remark.— This noun is the "predicate-nominative," except when the subject 
is in the objective. {See Rule II.) 

2. By a noun in the objective case; as, "John struck Alfred;" "I 
saw them." 



166 SYNTAX. 

3. By a predicate-adjective, or adjective in the predicate referring 
to the subject; as, "Ophelia is lovely;" "Aristides was called just." 

4. By an adjunct; as, "William spoke to Thomas." 

5. By an adverb; as, "Alice learns rapidly." 

6. By an infinitive ; as, " Cora wishes to learn." 

7. By a proposition; as, " I wish that you should learn;" "I wish 

you to learn." 

Remarks. — 1. It is only intransitive verbs and verbs in the passive voice that may 
be modified in the first and the third way, and only transitive verbs in the active 
voice that may be modified in the second way. 

2. Infinitives, participles, and gerunds are modified like other parts of the verb; 
as, "To be called John;" "Being called John;" "To strike Alfred;" "Striking 
Alfred." 

3. Gerunds, besides being modified like verbs, may be modified by nouns in the 
possessive case ; as, "His being called John/' 

An adjective may be modified — 

1. By an adjunct; as, "Desirous of justice. 11 

2. By an adverb; as, "Very desirous." 

3. By an infinitive; as, "Desirous to go." 

4. By a proposition; as, "Desirous that you should go." 

An adverb may be modified — 

1. By another adverb; as, "More openly." 

2. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to nature." 

An adjunct may be modified — 

By an adverb; as, "Just at that time;" "Soon after dinner." 

Remarks.— 1. A word maybe modified in several ways at the same time; as, 
"Annie earnestly desires to learn." 

2. A word modifying another may itself be modified ; as, " Herodotus, the father 
of history." Here father, which modifies Herodotus, is modified by the adjunct of 
history and the adjective the. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following nouns are modified and by what : 

Paul the apostle. Nero the tyrant. Cicero the orator. Xenophon 
the historian. Solomon, the son of David. Arnold, the base traitor. 
Herodotus, the father of history. I John. We Christians. Mecca, 
a city of Arabia. Chaucer, the father of English poetry. 

John's hat. Shakespeare's works. Wisdom's ways. Laura's heart. 
The prisoner's conduct. A mother's love. 

Obedience to parents. Duty to God. Love of virtue. Vulgarity 
in conversation. Beauty of form. Days of absence. Slaves to sin. 
Men of pure heart. Times of great affliction. Men of one idea. 
Authors of great respectability. 



SENTENCES. 167 

Envious men. Beautiful birds. Instructive books. These lovely 
scenes. The afflicted nation. Short pleasure. Long pain. The wise 
Nestor. That long table. The sun rising. The stars shining. The 
trees growing. A report touching. 

A wish to go. A determination to depart. A time to dance. The 
disposition to waver. A desire to excel. A resolution to study. 

The girl who reads. The woman who deliberates. The man who 
has known better days. The city that has been built. The fact that 
he wrote the letter. The belief that the army is demoralized. A wish 
that you would come. I who command you. He who has helped them. 

2. Tell which of the following verbs are modified and by what : 

She is a queen. He is an orator. He is called James. He is con- 
sidered a poet. He was chosen commander. You will be governor. 
It is a monument. I have been appointed inspector. I believe it to 
be him. They are villains. 

God governs the world. Cyrus defeated Croesus. I have chosen 
him. Virtue bestows tranquillity. Labor conquers all things. Him 
I know. Me you did not see. 

He is proud. She is vain. Elizabeth is happy. That farmer is 
industrious. Edward has been tardy. You will become learned. I 
am sad. Alexander is called great. 

Bonaparte marched into Russia. He came from Paducah. She 
conquers by kindness. Pompey was defeated by Caesar. Will you 
walk into my parlor? You will succeed by perseverance. He resides 
in Alabama. 

The evening fled swiftly. The grass grows rapidly. He studies 
diligently. The judge will decide justly. You will see him then. 
"When did you see him? Come on. She is here. Where is she? 
How does he study? 

He promises to remain. William has determined to go. He will 
be compelled to labor. He strives to excel. He threatened to shoot. 
He was commanded to fire. They have been ordered to retreat. 

I wish that he may be chosen. I pray that you may succeed. I 
confess that I have failed. I believe that he has gone. He stated that 
Theodore was deceived. I believe Jane to be mistaken. 

3. Tell which of the following adjectives are modified and by what : 
Desirous of praise. Mighty in arms. Confident of success. Good 

for nothing. Superior to fear. Trustworthy in nothing. Obstinate 
in trifles. Firm in opinion. 

Very good. Extremely bad. Exceedingly beautiful. Thoroughly 
vicious. Entirely unsuspicious. Supremely happy. Too suspicious. 
Sufficiently miserable. Cunning enough. 



168 SYNTAX. 

Keady to recite. "Wonderful to be told. Eager to advance. Easy 
to accomplish. Anxious to help. Disposed to complain. 

Conscious that he was in fault. Desirous that he should succeed. 
Confident that I should win. Impatient for me to come. 

4. Tell which of the following adverbs are modified and by what : 

Very highly esteemed. Most ardently devoted to study. Much 
more intelligent. More happily situated. Most wisely selected. Very 
recently. 

Agreeably to instructions. He studies best of all the pupils. Con- 
sistently with his obligations. Unfortunately for himself. Gloriously 
for them. Where in the world. Somewhere in the city. 

5. Show how the following adjuncts are modified : 

Ear beyond Mobile. Perfectly at home. Totally at a loss. Long 
before noon. Precisely at that moment. 

6. Modify the following nouns as indicated : 

1. By nouns in apposition. — John. Cromwell. Henry Clay. Hume. 
Frankfort. Ohio. Andrew Jackson. Longfellow. 

2. By nouns in the possessive case. — Hat. Umbrella. Book. Desk. 
Parasol. Cat. Dog. Shoe. Chair. Hand. Pen. 

3. By adjuncts. — Desire. Study. Attention. Hatred. Aversion. 
Love. Eoof. Cover. Foundation. 

4. By adjectives or participles. — Day. Weather. Boy. Character. 
Girl. Disposition. Horse. Cow. Mule. House. Light. 

5. By infinitives. — Disposition. Motive. Wish. Desire. Liability. 
Time. Propensity. Tendency. Opportunity. Inability. 

6. By propositions. — The man. The town. A statement. The fact. 
An assertion. The street. The truth. A wish. 

7. Modify the following verbs as indicated : 

1. By predicate-nominatives. — He is called. To be called. Being 
called. I have been appointed. He is. They are. To be. He has 
been elected. 

2. By nouns in the objective case. — He strikes. To strike. To have. 
They injure. He has. He has told. They will throw. Throwing. 
To throw. 

3. By predicate-adjectives. — She is. They have been. They seem. 
We are. He has been called. To be called. To be. Being. She 
appears. To appear. Appearing. 

4. By adjuncts. — Caesar marched. He has gone. Going. To go. 
He will run. I will walk. Braddock was defeated. The city was 
destroyed. The boy was drowned. The child was beaten. The comet 
was seen. 



SENTENCES. 169 

5. By adverbs. — She studies. They labor. We strive. He begs. 
To beg. It flies. Flying. He runs. She walks. They whisper. 
She smiles. 

6. By infinitives. — I wish. She seems. To seem. He hopes. They 
strive. Striving. You are expected. We try. To try. He ought. 
She likes. 

7. By propositions. — I hope. We know. Knowing. I thought. 
To think. She says. You forget. Eemember. I heard. He has 
asserted. They believe. You imagine. She supposes. 

8. Modify the following adjectives as indicated : 

1. By adjuncts. — Good. Eich. Suitable. Worthy. Happy. Next. 
Superior. Inferior. Displeasing. Opposite. 

2. By adverbs. — Sprightly. Bad. Worse. Conspicuous. Kough. 
Disastrous. Wild. Swift. Consistent. 

3. By infinitives. — Eeady. Solicitous. Anxious. Willing. Sure. 
Wonderful. Easy. Hard. Difficult. 

4. By propositions. — Conscious. Confident. Unconscious. Sure. 
Ignorant. Mindful. 

9. Modify the following adverbs as indicated : 

1. By adverbs. — Wisely. Better. Discreetly. Sooner. Fast. Now. 
Justly. 

2. By adjuncts. — Consistently. Agreeably. Conformably. Dif- 
ferently. 

10. Modify the following adjuncts by adverbs: 
From home. After dinner. In time. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A Simple Sentence is a sentence consisting of one propo- 
sition; as, "Time and tide wait for no man." 

A Complex Sentence is a sentence in which a proposition 
is employed as a noun, an adjective, an adjunct, or an adverb, 
to modify some part of the subject or of the predicate of an- 
other proposition; as, "I know who studies-" "The boy who 
studies will learn;" "I am surprised that you have come;" "I 
shall see you when you come" 

In the first sentence the proposition who studies performs the office 
of a noun, being the object of the transitive verb know; in the second 

15 



170 SYNTAX. 

sentence who studies performs the office of an adjective, being equivalent 
to studious; in the third sentence that you have come performs the office 
of an adjunct, being equivalent to the adjunct at your coming; in the 
fourth sentence when you come performs the office of an adverb, denoting 
the time. 

Propositions employed as nouns, adjectives, adjuncts, or 
adverbs (noun - propositions, adjective -propositions, adjunct- 
propositions, adverb -propositions) have the general name of 
subordinate propositions; while those containing the modified 
words are called principal propositions. 

The same word may be modified by two or more propositions ; as, 
"I know who studies and who is idle." 

A subordinate proposition may have some part of it modified by 
another proposition; as, "I am surprised that you have come when the 
season is so far advanced." 

A Compound Sentence is a sentence formed of two or 
more sentences, whether simple or complex, connected by 
coordinative conjunctions; as, "Art is long, and time is fleet- 
ing;" "The wicked flee when no man pursueth; but the 
righteous are as bold as a lion." 

Remark. — To form a compound sentence there must be a conjunction expressed 
or clearly implied ; mere connection of thought is not sufficient. The two following 
lines are closely connected in thought, but not in syntax : 

"Who lives to nature rarely can be poor; 
Who lives to fancy never can be rich. 1 ' 

NOUN-PROPOSITIONS. 

A proposition may perform the office of a noun — 

1. As subject of a verb; as, "That he will succeed is evident;" "How 
he succeeded is a mystery." 

2. As object of a transitive verb; as, "I believe that he will succeed;" 
"I do not know how he succeeded;" "I believe him to be honest;" "I 
know who wrote that letter;" "I know why he wrote the letter;" "Tell 
me whether you will go or stay;" u He said, 'J will go. 1 " 

3. As predicate-nominative; as, "The general belief is that he will 
succeed." 

4. As noun in apposition; as, "Kemember the old saying, '•Know 
thyself f " "The story ran that he could gage" 



SENTENCES. 171 

5. As object of a preposition; as, "Much will depend on who the 
commissioners are; 11 "One word is too often profaned for me to profane 
it;" "There has been a controversy about how it was done;" "I have 
formed no opinion in regard to who is guilty;" "I have formed no 
opinion as (in regard) to who is guilty." 

Adjective-propositions. 
A proposition may perform the office of an adjective — 

1. When it contains a relative pronoun; as, "The girl who is always 
laughing shows want of sense;" "That undiscovered country from 
whose bourn no traveler returns-" "I have formed no opinion in regard 
to vihat you assert;" "In the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt 
surely die." 

Remarks. — 1. The word modified by the relative proposition what you assert is 
thing understood. 

2. In the proposition that thou eatest thereof, modifying day, that (in which) is a 
relative pronoun and the object of a preposition understood. This construction is 
not uncommon. " What is the reason that (for which) you use me thus?" — Shake- 
speare. " From the day that (on which) the school was given up." — Quarterly Review. 
" The instant that (at which) he quitted the use or occupation of it another might 
seize it." — Blackstone. " Each stepping where his comrade stood the instant that (at 
which) he fell." — Scott. " She died the hour that (in which) I was born." — Coleridge. 
"At the same time that (at which) it occasioned uncertainty in the sense." — Hume. 
" This night 's the time that (in which) I should do what I abhor to name." — Shak. 

"About the time that (at which) the declining sun 
Shall his broad orbit o'er yon hills suspend 
Expect us to return." — Home. 

" It is the first time that (at which) ever I heard breaking of ribs was sport for 
ladies." — Shakespeare. "The time was that (at which) I hated thee." — Shakespeare. 
"About the time that (at which) the estafette made his appearance."— Irving. " The 
moment that (at which) his face I see." — Coleridge. "After the time that (at which) 
my uncle Toby and Trim decamped." — Sterne. 

3. The relative is sometimes understood; as, " This is the man [whom] we met." 

4. There is a construction in which the antecedent is placed after a preposition 
logically connected with the relative ; as, " It is to this place that the gulls resort." 
This is not equivalent to " That the gulls resort is to this place " [see p. 161], but to 
" It is this place that the gulls resort to ;" " It is this place to which the gulls resort ;" 
"This [place] is the place to which the gulls resort." This construction, though, it 
is believed, not before noticed by any English grammarian, is quite common. It is 
somewhat similar to one form of what Greek grammarians call attraction; the ante- 
cedent, instead of being put in the nominative case, is attracted to the case of the 
relative. 

This form is irregular and in analysis must be changed. Thus, " It (the place) 
to which the gulls resort is this place." 

Some additional examples are here given: " It is from me that he has fled." (It 
is I that he has fled from ; It [the person] that he has fled from is I.) " It was by 
Caesar that he was defeated." " It is in these formidable mansions that myriads of 
sea-fowl are forever seen sporting." — Goldsmith. " It was not to passive principles 
in our ancestors that we owe the honor of appearing before a sovereign."— Burke. 



172 SYNTAX. 

" It was by him that money was coined."— Macaulay. " It is from the terror of these 
spectres that our people have fled."— Beckford. This may be equivalent either to 
" That our people have fled is from (caused by) the terror of these spectres," or to 
" It is the terror of these spectres from which our people have fled." From this 
the difference in meaning between the two constructions may be seen. 

" It is to this last new feature of the game-laws to which we intend to confine 
our notice." — Sydney Smith. Here the writer confounds two different constructions. 
He ends the sentence as if he had not used to in the first part. 

5. The antecedent is sometimes attracted from its own proposition to that of the 
relative, the relative being joined with it as an adjective; as, "He marched with 
what forces he had ;" that is, " He marched with the forces which he had." To the 
latter form such sentences must be changed in analysis. 

This is similar to what some Greek grammarians call incorporation, the ante- 
cedent being in a manner incorporated with the relative. 

2. When it contains an adverb equivalent to an adjunct formed 
with a relative pronoun; as, "She visited the place where (in which) 
she was once so happy; 11 "Tell me the reason why (for which) thou 
wilt marry ;' ? "You take my life when you do take the means whereby 
(by which) i" live. 11 

Adjunct-propositions. 
A proposition may perform the office of an adjunct — 

1. "When it denotes the cause or reason; as, "We should love him 
because (by the cause, for the reason) he first loved us? 1 " Since (for the 
reason) he first loved us, we should love him;" "As (for the reason) you 
ask for mercy, you should show mercy." 

2. When it denotes the purpose, object, or result; as, "I eat that 
(for that) I may live; 11 "He labors in order [to] that he may obtain 
bread; 11 "I eat lest (for fear) I may die; 11 "He speaks loud [for] that 
every one may hear him. 11 

3. When it expresses a condition or supposition; as, "I will go, if 
(on the condition) you will go with me; 11 "If you will go with me, I will 
go;" "He will go unless [without] he should change his mind; 11 "If (on 
the supposition) he were alive, he would be a rich man;" "He will be 
elected, whether (on either supposition) you vote for him or [you do~\ not 
[vote for him~\r 

4. When it expresses a concession or admission; as, "I expect to 
succeed, though (with the concession) the difficulties are great 11 

5. When it is the complement of the idea expressed by some one 
of certain nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which take adjuncts; as, "This 
furnishes evidence [of] that you are guilty (of your guilt);" "He has 
no assurance [of] that you will come (of your coming);" "He is con- 
scious [of] that he has done wrong (of having done wrong);" "She 
was ignorant [of] that he was defeated (of his defeat);" "The general 
is ashamed [of] that he acted so hastily (of having acted so hastily) ;" 



SENTENCES. 173 

"I am anxious [for] that he should succeed (for his success);" "He is 
grateful [for] that he has been relieved;" "I warn you [of] that you 
will not have another opportunity ;" " I will wager a dinner [on] that 
Mary will venture there now;" "Fret not thyself [for] that a poor 
villager inspires my strains" 

Adverb-propositions. 
A proposition may perform the office of an adverb — 

1. When it denotes time; as, "The sun was rising when (at the 
time at which) / commenced my journey" "I will stay ichile you are 
gone;" "He trembled as (at the time at which) he spoke;" "I have 
not seen him since he arrived. 11 

2. When it denotes place; as, "Stay where (in the place in which) I 
have placed you-"' " She is happy wherever (in every place in which) she is" 

3. When it denotes manner; as, "He died as (in the manner in 
which) he had lived;" "He thought as a sage [thinks]." 

4. When it denotes degree; as, "She is as (in the same degree) good 
as (in which) he is;" "That is so (in that degree) disagreeable that* (in 
which) / can not endure it;" "The ground is so (in that degree) dry 
that (in which) the grass is withered;" "He is as studious as his brother 
[is studious];" "He is more studious than (to a degree above that in 
which) his brother [is studious]." 

Remark. — It will be observed that those propositions which we have, for the sake 
of convenience, called adverb-propositions really consist of adjuncts and adjective- 
propositions. Thus, in the sentence, "The sun was rising when I commenced my 
journey," when is equivalent to at the time at which, the noun time being modified 
by the adjective-proposition, at which I commenced my journey. Such propositions 
might be called adjunct-adjective propositions. 

Elliptical Propositions. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words belonging 
to the grammatical construction but not necessary for convey- 
ing the idea. 

examples of ellipsis. 

Deliver [thou] us from evil. Go [you] in peace. I will wait for 
you at Mr. Smith's [house]. I will take this book, and you may take 
that [book]. He took the shortest [way], not the longest way. Let 
each [person] take his own course. Behold the ghastly band, each 
[having] a torch in his hand. Thee, [being] then a boy, within my 
arms I laid. When Adam thus [spoke] to Eve. This comes after 

* In such sentences that is an adverb, or a relative pronoun with a preposition 
understood. 



174 SYNTAX. 

that, instead of [coming] before it. He has not yet decided, except 
[deciding] in one case (deciding in one case being excepted). 

What [would happen] if the foot aspired to be the head? He looks 
as [he would look] if he were not well. If [it is] possible, I will assist 
you. The next time [at which] I see you. He will have his own way, 
[be it] right or wrong. [Be thou] whatever thou art, I do not fear 
thee.* [Be he] however cunning he may be, he can not escape. Do 
[she] what she will, she is applauded. [Do she] whatever she does, she 
is applauded. 

The cathedral [which is] there was built several hundred years ago. 
The rabbit [which was] in the tree was caught. As [it happens] when a 
bird each fond endearment tries. Why [should we] grieve that time 
flies? Will you go or [will you] not [go]? What [does it matter] 
though the spicy breezes blow soft o'er Ceylon's isle? Thy tragic muse 
gives smiles, thy comic [muse gives] sleep. He can not succeed; he 
will, however [this may be],t try. [Let it have been] however it was, 
it did him no good. Go [he] who will [go], I will stay. 

I shall consider his censures so far only as [it, or the matter] con- 
cerns my friend's conduct. With a few of the best English writers he 
was intimate, particularly [he was intimate] with Shakespeare and 
Milton. There might be too much pride in the son, as [there was too 
much pride] in the father. A sickness long as well as [it was] severe 
had enfeebled him. He went as far as Richmond [is far]. John went 
as well (truly) as James [went]. [Being] avaricious as he is, that man 
will never give money for this purpose. I have nothing to say as (in 
regard) to that matter. 

But [things being] even so, he could not refrain. He has not done 
it as [things are] yet. By the bye [I will remark], Miss More is an 
author of considerable merit. [To say all] in a word, he must give up 
all his aims in life for it. Statesmen, as [they are] distinguished from 
mere politicians, are entitled to great respect. I assume it [to be] as a 
fact [is]. You wish to escape; I will not permit you though [this is so.] 
All this while the soil and pasture of the earth remained still in com- 
mon as [they had been] before, except perhaps [they did not remain in 
common] in the neighborhood of towns. 

He heaped abuse upon her, and [he did] that too when she had no 
protector. [It is] not that all are equally susceptible. She has more 
reason to value herself upon the conquest of an old man who has never 

* Chaucer's landlord, after asking the priest whether he was a " vicary" or a 
" personne," goes on to say, " Be what thou be, ne breke thou not our play "=" Be 
thou whatever thou art, break not our play." 

f Be this, or let this be however it may be. 



SENTENCES. 175 

seen her than [she has much reason to value herself upon the conquest] 
of any young man who has [seen her]. So far [ought we to be] from 
desponding, we ought to be sanguine. But [let us come] to the point. 
He will, [there is] no doubt, answer you. After these reflections on 
modesty as [it is]* a virtue I must observe that there is a vicious 
modesty. His reputation as [he is] an author is very great. He did 
not [do] so much as [to] weep [is much]. 

This should not create a prejudice against the Jews as [they are] 
such. He can not [do any thing] but (be out) [to] conquer. You can 
[not] but [to] try.t [Being the] sluggard that he is, he wastes his days 
in sleep. I tell thee what [it is], corporal, I could tear her. The year 
before he had so used the matter that [with] what [he had effected] by 
force, [with] what [he had effected] by policy, he had taken thirty 
small castles.J An aptitude for painting trees and cattle, or gondolas 
and buildings, or what [I mention] not (other things which I do not 
enumerate). 

He is as tall as James [is tall]. He is taller than James [is tall]. 
He is as wise as [he is] learned. He is more wise than [he is] learned. 
The sun is larger than the earth [is large]. He does nothing who 
endeavors to do more than [that which] is allowed to humanity [is 
much]. My punishment is greater than [that which] I can bear [is 
great]. Pears are better than apples [are good]. I have more than 
[that which] I know what to do with [is much].g You are more 



* Steele expresses the words in brackets: "After these reflections on modesty 
as it is a virtue," etc. 

fThat is, You can not do any thing be out to try. It is by the omission of not 
that but has come to be used in the sense of the adverb only. " He hath not grieved 
me but in part." — English Bible. 

% " In part ; partly ; — with a following preposition, especially with, and with repe- 
tition." — Webster's Dictionary. But what is not always repeated; thus, "In short, 
what with pride, prejudice, and knavery, poor Peter was grown distracted." — Swift. 
" What with gas and new police, steam and one cause or other, they have become 
what one might call slow explosions." — Hood. What with the wheels of a cart, the 
tramp of a horse, the voice of a man, the tearing in and out of an excited dog, and 
the surprising and mysterious appearance of a baby." — Dickens. What in this idiom 
seems to refer merely to the effect produced by means of what the following nouns 
denote. When with is used it is used like by, to denote the instrument, means, cause. 

§ " He does nothing who endeavors to do more than [what] is allowed to 
humanity ;" " My punishment is greater than [what] I can bear." — Brown's Grammar 
of Grammars. "Pears are better than apples [are]." — KerVs Treatise on the English 
Language. It is not sufficient to supply merely the verb. When we say, " Pears are 
as good as apples," or " Pears are better than apples," we make a comparison, not 
between the goodness of the pears and the existence of the apples, but between the 
goodness of the pears and the goodness of the apples, and the adjective good is of 
course implied after as or than. " He would sooner go than [he would soon] stay." 
" He would rather go [than he would rathe] stay." (See p. 150.) As rathe is almost 



176 SYNTAX. 

unhappy than [you would be unhappy] if you had lost your eyes. In 
that battle he did not lose more than fifty men (more men than fifty 
[are many]). That is more easily imagined than [it is easily] described. 
I saw a being of [dignity] greater than human dignity [is great]. 

Substitutes and Transformations. 

A noun and a participle (nominative absolute) may be employed 
instead of a dependent proposition; as, "Virtue being lost, all is lost"= 
" When virtue is lost all is lost." 

A gerund may take the place of a finite verb, the subject of the 
finite verb being put in the possessive case before the gerund; as, "I 
am not sure of his having paid the debt"="I am not sure that he has 
paid the debt." 

Instead of the nominative with a finite verb the objective with an 
infinitive may sometimes be used; as, "I believe him to be honest "=" I 
believe that he is honest." "I heard him speak" ="1 heard him as 
he spoke." (For another view of" "I heard him speak" see p. 228.) 

The action, instead of being asserted, is sometimes merely named, 
an infinitive being employed for a finite verb; as, "To confess the 
truth, I was in fault "=" That I may confess the truth, [I must say] 
I was in fault;" "He knows when to be silent"="He knows when he 
should be silent;" "This is a subject on which to show your powers "= 
"This is a. subject on which you may show your powers;" "The diffi- 
culties were so great as to deter him"="The difficulties were so great 
that they deterred him;" "I requested him to attend 1 ' '="1 requested 
him that he would attend;" "He was commanded to <7o"="He was 
commanded that he should go." 

Remark.— The preceding passages are not elliptical ; but the verb is employed 
in an unlimited form, like the Latin "historical infinitive" occurring in such pas- 
sages as hostes tela conjieere, the enemy threw (to throw) their javelins. The Latin 
infinitive in such passages does not, as some saj r , depend on coepit or coeperunt under- 
stood ; but the verb is employed in its unlimited form, the context being considered 
sufficient to point out the limitations. 

The imperative mood is often employed to express conditions, sup- 
positions, etc.; as, "Let it be ever so humble, there is no place like 
home;" "Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home "=" Though 

obsolete, the equivalent soon may be put in its place. "He seeks other things than 
these." As the comparative other has no positive, we must in analysis employ some 
equivalent word. If these refers to something bad, low, etc., other is equivalent to 
better, higher, etc.; if these refers to things good, high, etc., other is equivalent to 
ivorse, lower, etc., " He seeks things higher than these are high." 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 177 

it may "be ever so humble, there is no place like home." "There is no 
place like home, [be it] however humble it may be." 

"Let sage or cynic prattle as he will, 

These hours, and these alone, repay life's years of ill." — Byron. 

The subject is sometimes placed before a verb to which it does not 

logically belong, what is declared of the object being in reality expressed 

by the infinitive following; as, "The man is said to be honest "=" It is 

said that the man is honest." 

Remark. — Here it is not the man that is said ; what is said is that the man is 
honest. "The boy is believed to have stolen it" does not mean that the boy is 
believed, but that the boy has stolen it is believed. 

Some part of the verb do is sometimes omitted before than, and 
the infinitive following changed in form and employed instead of the 
omitted part of do; as, "He has more than atoned for his fault "=" He 
has done more than [to] atone for his fault [is much]." Here a com- 
parison is made between what he has done and what to atone for his 
fault amounts to, and the infinitive atone is transformed to a participle, 
which is employed instead of the omitted participle done. " He more 
than atones for his fault "=" He does more than atone for his fault." 

A noun in the objective case after the adverb like and some other 
words is sometimes equivalent to a proposition; as, "He walks like a 
duck" =" He walks as a duck walks." 

"This is the forest primeval; but where are the hearts that beneath it 
Leaped like the roe when he hears in the woodland the voice of the 
huntsman ?" — Longfellow. 

When in this passage is a conjunctive adverb, and it should modify two 
verbs. Leaped is one of the verbs ; the other is leaps, implied in like 
the roe=as the roe leaps. 

An interjection is sometimes employed in the. sense of a whole 
proposition; as, "O that those lips had language!" — Cowper. (See 
p. 156: Rem. 4.) 

For such transformed propositions as "It is to this place that gulls 
resort" (attraction), see p. 171, Rem. 4. 

For such transformed propositions as "He marched with what 
forces he had" {incorporation), see p. 172, Rem. 5. 

EXEECISES IN ANALYSIS. 

Directions. — In analyzing a passage take, without regard to the punctuation, as 
much ns makes complete sense. This is a complete sentence (unless something is 
added to form a compound sentence). 

Point out the logical subject and the logical predicate. 

Point out the grammatical subject; then its modifiers, if it is modified. 



178 SYNTAX. 

If the words which modify the grammatical subject are themselves modified, 
point out the modifiers ; then the modifiers of those modifiers, etc. 

Point out the grammatical predicate ; then its modifiers, if it is modified. 

If the words which modify the grammatical predicate are themselves modified, 
point out the modifiers ; then the modifiers of those modifiers, etc. 

Analyze the subordinate propositions of the logical subject and the logical 
predicate. 

Simple Sentences. 

1. Analyze the following sentences: 

"A night of storm followed a day of sunshine." 

Logical subject, a night of storm; logical predicate, followed a day 
of sunshine. 

Grammatical subject, night, modified by the adjective a and the 
adjunct of storm. 

Grammatical predicate, followed, modified by the objective day, day 
being modified by the adjective a and the adjunct of sunshine. 

"Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." 

Logical subject, the glimmering landscape; logical predicate, now 
fades on the sight. 

Grammatical subject, landscape, modified by the adjectives the and 
glimmering* 

Grammatical predicate, fades, modified by the adverb now and the 
adjunct on the sight, sight being modified by the adjective the. 

The following arrangement presents to the eye the relation of the words to each 
other. A perpendicular line shows that the word before it is modified by what 
immediately follows it. The grammatical subject and grammatical predicate are 
distinguished by lines drawn under them. 

Night n Landscape 
— 2 — of storm £— 

now 



followed 



day 



n -, . fades 
oi sunshine. 



glimmering 
on the sight. 



"The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 
Logical subject, the curfew; logical predicate, tolls the knell of 

parting day. 

Grammatical subject, curfew, modified by the adjective the. 
Grammatical predicate, tolls, modified by the objective knell; knell 

is modified by the adjective the and the adjunct of parting day. 

*The adjective the really modifies the complex expression glimmering landscape; 
but it is not necessary to make the young pupil attend to such distinctions. The 
relation of the words may be represented in a diagram thus, landscape | glimmering | the; 
which shows that landscape is first modified by glimmering^ and then glimmering land- 
scape is modified by the. "All bad books are pernicious " Books | bad | ail are pernicious. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 179 

"A contented mind is a continual feast." 

Logical subject, a contented mind; logical predicate, is a continual 
feast. 

Grammatical subject, mind, modified by the adjectives a and 
contented. 

Grammatical predicate, is, modified by the predicate -nominative 
feast; feast is modified by the adjectives a and continual. 



Curfew | the Mind 

the 



tolls 1 knell 



of parting day. * I feast 



a 
contented 

a 

continual 



"That boy is intelligent and modest." 

Logical subject, that boy; logical predicate, is intelligent and modest. 
Grammatical subject, boy, modified by the adjective that. 
Grammatical predicate, is, modified by the predicate-adjectives intel- 
ligent and modest. 

"Aristides was called just by the Athenians." 

Logical subject, Aristides; logical predicate, was called just by the 
Athenians. 

Grammatical subject, Aristides; grammatical predicate, was called, 
modified by the predicate-adjective just and the adjunct by the Athenians. 

Boy 1 that Aristides 

intelligent 



is 



was called 
modest. 



just 

by the Athenians. 



"Pestilence and famine followed the war." 

Logical subject, pestilence and famine; logical predicate, followed 
the tear. 

The compound subject consists of the two simple subjects, pestilence 
and famine, which are not modified. 

Grammatical predicate, followed, modified by the objective war; war 
is modified by the adjective the. 

"The winds roar around the house and whistle at the door." 

Logical subject, the winds; logical predicate, roar around the house 
and whistle at the door. 

Grammatical subject, ivinds, modified by the adjective the. 

The compound predicate consists of the two simple predicates, roar 
around the house and whistle at the door. Roar is modified by the 
adjunct around the house, and whistle is modified by the adjunct at 
the door. 



180 



SYNTAX. 



' Pestilence 
famine 



followed | war | the 



Winds | the 
'roar | around the house 

"7" 

whistle | at the door. 



A night of storm followed a day of sunshine. Now fades the 
glimmering landscape on the sight. The curfew tolls the knell of 
parting day. A contented mind is a continual feast. That boy is 
intelligent and modest. Pestilence and famine followed the war. 
The winds roar around the house and whistle at the door. Wealth 
often produces misery. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 
Empty vessels make the greatest sound. A guilty conscience needs no 
accuser. A good cause makes a strong arm. The owner of that estate 
is a fortunate man. Idleness is the parent of many vices. Thus passes 
the glory of the world. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

Time and tide wait for no man. The devils believe and tremble. 
Alexander and Caesar were great conquerors. Demosthenes and Cicero 
were celebrated orators. Beasts and birds have gone to rest. The 
princes of that day nourished and faded. The time for action came 
and passed. The rain fell on the grass and restored its freshness. 
Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. The spirit of 
religion and the spirit of chivalry concurred to exalt his dignity. 

2. Arrange all the preceding sentences after the manner of the diagrams. 

3. Point out the subject and predicate and the modifications, as they are pre- 
sented in the following diagrams : 



Men | two 

walked | with three boys. 



Stone 



a 

rolling 
gathers | moss | no 



Man | the 

waits | for the boy. 



Death 



peaceful 



closed I life 



stormy 



Herd 



winds 



the 
lowing 

slowly 

o'er the lea. 



Man 



that 
old 
walks I with a staff. 



Industry 
honestv 



economy 



insure 



generally 
success. 



Charity 

f soothed 
I 

[blessed I him. 



healed 



Leaves ] 



flowers 



< ! 

uit J 



fruit 



the 

of that tree 



are I beautiful.* 



* The brace after leaves, flowers, and fruit is to show that they are all modified by 
*the and of that tree. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 181 



Andrew ( Lucinda She 

i 



Thomas I Clara 



-j /* f sat | under the tree 



f sat | 



went | to town. have learned | to read. I read | book j the 

Complex Sentences. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

"That the soul is immortal is believed by all nations." 

Logical subject, that the soul is immortal; logical predicate, is 
believed by all nations. 

Grammatical subject, the noun-proposition that the soul is immortal. 

Grammatical predicate, is believed, modified by the adjunct by all 
nations. 

Logical subject of the noun-proposition, the soul; logical predicate, 
is immortal. 

Grammatical subject, soul, modified by the adjective the. 

Grammatical predicate, is, modified by the predicate -adjective 
immortal. 

"I know who wrote that letter.' ' 

Logical subject, I; logical predicate, know who wrote that letter. 

Grammatical subject, 7. 

Grammatical predicate, know, modified by its object, the noun- 
proposition who wrote that letter. 

Logical subject of the noun-proposition, who; logical predicate, 
wrote that letter. 

Grammatical subject, who; grammatical predicate, wrote, modified 
by the objective letter, which is modified by the adjective that. 

fThat I 



soul | the know 

is I immortal 



( who 



j wrote | letter | that 



is believed | by all nations. 

"The boy who studies will learn." 

Logical subject, the boy who studies; logical predicate, will learn. 

Grammatical subject, boy, modified by the adjective the and the 
adjective-proposition who studies. 

Logical and grammatical subject of the adjective-proposition, who; 
logical and grammatical predicate, studies. 



182 SYNTAX. 

« 
" The lady that- you met has gone to Nashville. 

Logical subject, the lady that you met; logical predicate, has gone to 
Nashville. 

Grammatical subject, lady, modified by the adjective the and the 
adjective-proposition that you met. 

Logical subject of the adjective-proposition, you; logical predicate, 
met that. 

Grammatical subject, you; grammatical predicate, met, modified by 
the objective that. 

the 



Boy 



the T -, the 

j who = f you 

1 studies | met 



that 
will learn. has srone I to Nashville. 



"He is ashamed that he acted so hastily." 

Logical subject, he; logical predicate, is ashamed that he acted so 
hastily. 

Grammatical subject, he; grammatical predicate, is, modified by 
the adjective ashamed; ashamed is modified by the adjunct-proposition 
that he acted so hastily. 

Logical subject of the adjunct-proposition, he; logical predicate, 
acted so hastily. Grammatical subject, he; grammatical predicate, 
acted, modified by the adverb hastily, and hastily by the adverb so. 

Remark. — When there is only one proposition one line is sufficient to mark 
the grammatical subject and the grammatical predicate. If there is a subordinate 
proposition, the grammatical subject and grammatical predicate in the principal 
proposition should have two lines and in the subordinate proposition one line. If 
the subordinate proposition contains a modifying proposition, the principal propo- 
sition should have three lines, the proposition modifying it should have two, and the 
proposition modifying that should have one. Thus the number of lines will show 
the relative rank of the propositions. 

"I will tell you the secret when I see you." 

Logical subject, I; logical predicate, will tell you the secret when I 
see you. 

Grammatical subject, I; grammatical predicate, will tell, modified 
by the adjunct [to~\ you, the objective secret, and the adverb-proposition 
when I see you. Secret is modified by the adjective the 

Logical subject of the adverb-proposition, I; logical predicate, see 
you when; grammatical subject, I; grammatical predicate, see, modified 
by the objective you and the adverb when. 



EXEKCISES IN ANALYSIS. 



183 



He 

is I ashamed 



f (that) 
I he 

I acted | 



I 

will tell 



hastily | so 



[to] you 
secret | the 
(when)* 
I 



see 



you 

when 



That the soul is immortal is believed by all nations. I know who 
wrote that letter. The boy who studies will learn. The lady that you 
met has gone to Nashville. He is ashamed that he acted so hastily. 
I will tell you the secret when I see you. Brutus says he was am- 
bitious. I shall see you when you come. I know how he succeeded. 
That he will succeed is evident. I believe that he will be elected. 
I have lost the money which you gave me. The book that you lent 
me I have read. That [man] is the man who stole your purse. That 
is the boy that stole the apples. 

2. Arrange all the preceding sentences after the manner of the diagrams. 

3. Point out the subject and predicate and the modifications as they are presented 
in the following diagrams : 



I 

know 



1 



who 

took | book | my 



He 

succeeded 



how 



I 

heard 



Man I the 



was changed | so I 

did know 



him 

not 

thatt 



is | mystery | a 

He 

left | room | the 
(that) 



(that) 
you 

had come. 



he 
might 



not 

be drawn 



into the quarrel. 



He 

will rise 



He 



again 

(though) 
, he 
should I fall. 



will do | [thing] [the] 

whatever 



! 



is j right. 



-The conjunctive adverb when is placed here as well as with see, because it 
modifies will tell as well as see. 

f That here is an adverb modifying did know— was changed in that degree (so) in 
which (that) I did not know him. 



184 



SYNTAX. 



He 

will defeat | [him] 



Dog| a 

lay | in a manger 



He I ( who 



whoever 
opposes I him. 



{ 



made | world | the 

preserves " 



governs 



it 
now. 



>* ( snarling \ 

^ prevented by^ & [-his 

I snapping J 

oxen | the 

from eating | hay 



the 
fthat 



had been put 



there 
for them. 



Franklin 



( who 



t 



became 



learned, 1 [(when) 
: I he 



afterward 
statesman 



h 



iy >■ - 

, . v , , distinguished 

philosopher ) & 



was 



boy | a 
when 
his 
in the printing-office | of his brother 



trade 



[ Malt ] | this 
the 



who 



was 



printer | a 
in Boston. 



is | malt 



that 

lay I in the house 



Jack 
built I that 



Emptiness 



the 

of human enjoyment 



is | such [that 



we 



are 



dissatisfied | with the present. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 



185 



Man I the 

[ patriotism | whose 



| "would 



t 



not 
gain 



piety | whose 
not 



would 



grow 



is I to be envied I little 



force 

on the plain | of Marathon, 



warm 

among the ruins | of Iona, 



Compound Sentences. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

"Life is short, and art is long.'' 

Compound sentence, the two propositions being connected by the 
coordinative conjunction and. The propositions to be analyzed in the 
usual way. 

11 Tell me with whom you associate, and I will tell you what you are." 

Compound sentence, the two complex propositions being connected 
by the coordinative conjunction and. 



Life 

is | short 

v 

art 

is | long. 



[You] 



tell 



[to] me 
I associate I with whom 



We 

loved | them 

they 
loved I us. 



I 

will tell 



[to] you 
you 

are I what 



Life is short, and art is long. Tell me with whom you associate, 
and I will tell you what you are. We loved them, and they loved us. 

Now setting Phoebus shone serenely bright, . 
And fleecy clouds were streaked with purple light. 

Martha went out, but Mary remained in the house. Patience is a 
bitter seed, but it yields rich fruit. The bells ceased to toll, and the 
streets became silent. 

16 



186 



SYNTAX. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

That landscape which fills the traveler with rapture is regarded 
vvith indifference by him who sees it every day from his window. 

The veil that covers from our sight the events of succeeding years 
is a veil woven by the hand of mercy. 

The spirit of religion and the spirit of chivalry concurred to exalt 
his dignity. — Macaulay. 

Then men fasted from meat and drink who fasted not from bribes 
and blood. Then men frowned at stage -plays who smiled at mas- 
sacres. — Macaulay. 

The Cynic who twitted Aristippus by observing that the philosopher 
who could dine on herbs might despise the company of a king, was well 
answered by Aristippus when he remarked that the philosopher who 
could enjoy the company of a king might also despise a dinner of herbs. 



Cvnic 



the 
who 



nvno 
(twitted 



was answered 



Aristippus 
by observing 

well 

by Aristippus 

(when) 

he 



(that) 
philosopher 



the 
fwho 

| could | dine | on herbs 
might | despise J company 



remarked 



when 
(that) 
philosopher 



the 

of a king, 



the 

f who 



1 could | enjoy | company | of ^ king 



might I also 
===== I despise 



dinner 



a 

of herbs. 



Heaven bestows its gifts on whatever happy man will deign to use 
them=:Heaven bestows its gifts on the happy man who will deign to 
use them. 

The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, 

Of wailing winds and naked woods and meadows brown and sere. 

Heaped in the hollows of the grove the withered leaves lie dead; 

They echo to the eddying gust and to the rabbit's tread. 

The robin and the wren are flown ; and from the shrub the jay, 

And from the wood-top calls the crow, through all the gloomy day. 

Remark. — Saddest belongs to days understood, and this days is in apposition 
with days expressed. The jay [calls] from the shrub [through all the gloomy day.] 

'T is from high life [that] high characters are drawn (Pojoe)=It is 
high life from which high characters are drawn. 

It is by such scoundrels that we find him to have been cheated of 
his inheritance. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 187 

The smoother the surface, the deeper the water.— The water is 
deeper in the degree (the) in which (the) the surface is smoother. 

The deeper the well, the cooler the water.r=The water is cooler 
in the degree (the) in which (the) the well is deeper. 

Last noon beheld them full of lusty life, 
Last eve in beauty's circle proudly gay, 

The midnight brought the signal-sound of strife, 
The morn the marshaling in arms, the day 
Battle's magnificently stern array. — Byron. 

Remark. — In this passage there are five simple sentences, the verbs being 
understood in three. 

In Islington there was a man 

Of whom the world might say 
That still a godly race he ran 

Whene'er he went to pray. — Goldsmith. 

Few and short were the prayers we said, 
And we spoke not a word of sorrow; 

But we steadfastly gazed on the face of the dead 
As we bitterly thought on the morrow. — Wolfe. 

"When twilight dews are falling fast 

Upon the rosy sea 
I watch the star whose beam so oft 

Has lighted me to thee. — Moore. 

Because (by cause) of these things cometh the wrath of God. 

He was treated in a style according to his deserts. 

Remark. — According is a participle belonging to style. (See page 135, etc.) 

Respecting his conduct there is but one opinion. 

Remark. — Respecting is a participle belonging to opinion.' 

The consideration of the Queen's message touching the marriage 
of the Duke of Edinburgh was resumed. 

A mortal disease was on the vitals of Rome before Caesar passed 
the Rubicon. 

Remark. — If before is regarded as a conjunctive adverb = before the time at 
which, this is a complex sentence; but it is better to regard it as a preposition 
having for its object the noun-proposition, Caesar passed the Rubicon. Was is modified 
by the adjunct before Csesar passed the Rubicon. 

Disease 



mortal 



on the vitals | of Rome 
before 



fCoesar 

-< 



(passed | Rubicon | the 



188 SYNTAX. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

Of what does syntax treat ? What is a sentence ? What is a proposition ? What 
does the subject denote? The predicate? What does the logical subject denote? 
The logical predicate ? What is the grammatical subject ? The grammatical predi- 
cate? When is the logical subject the same as the grammatical subject? When 
is the logical predicate the same as the grammatical predicate? What may the 
grammatical subject be ? How is it often used ? How is there often used ? What is a 
simple subject? A simple predicate? A compound subject? A compound predicate ? 
What is a declarative sentence ? An interrogative sentence ? An imperative sentence ? 
An exclamatory sentence ? When is a word said to modify another ? What is the 
first way in which a noun may be modified ? The second ? The third ? The fourth ? 
The fifth ? The sixth ? What is the first way in which a verb may be modified ? The 
second? The third? The fourth? The fifth? The sixth? The seventh? What 
is the first way in which an adjective may be modified? The second? The third? 
The fourth ? What is the first way in which an adverb may be modified ? The second? 
How may an adjunct be modified ? What is a simple sentence ? A complex sentence ? 
What are subordinate propositions ? Principal propositions ? What is a compound 
sentence? What is the first way in which a proposition may perform the office of a 
noun? The second? The third? The fourth ? The fifth ? What is the first case 
in which a proposition performs the office of an adjunct ? The second ? The third ? 
The fourth ? The fifth ? What is the first case in which a proposition performs the 
office of an adverb? The second? The third? The fourth? What is ellipsis? 
Explain the construction in " Virtue being lost, all is lost." In "I am not sure of 
his having paid the debt." In " I believe him to be honest." In " To confess the 
truth, I was in fault." In "Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home." In 
" The man is said to be honest." In " He has more than atoned for his fault." In 
" He walks like a duck." In " O that those lips had language !" 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 
RULE I. 
The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case ; 



as, 



"He is -honest." 



Remarks. — 1. The subject of a verb in the infinitive mood is in the objective 
case ; as, " I believe him to be honest." 

2. An infinitive, a gerund, or a proposition may be the subject of a verb. {See 
page 161.) 

3. When the verb is in the imperative mood, second person, the subject is gen- 
erally omitted. (See page 164, last paragraph.) 

4. When the subject is a relative pronoun it is sometimes omitted; as, '"Tis 
the sunset of life gives me mystical lore." — Campbell. "'Tis distance lends enchant- 
ment to the view." — Id. Except in such poetical forms, it is inelegant to omit the 
subject; as, " The captain had several men in the ship died of the scurvy." 

5. The verb is frequently omitted, particularly in answers to questions and after 
as and than; as, " Who has read this book ? John [has read it] ;" " You read as well 
as he [reads] ;" " The smoother the surface [is], the deeper the water [is]." 

6. In but with the nominative the verb is disguised by contraction; as, "All 
perished but (be out) he." (See Remark 14, p. 139.) 

By regarding but as never any thing but a preposition or conjunction some have 
been led to condemn such expressions as " Every one can master a grief but (be out) 






SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB. 189 

he that has it."— Shakespeare* " Let none touch it but they who are clean." This 
is condemned by Goold Brown because he regards but as a conjunction " connecting 
like cases ;" but the nominative they is correct. 

7. The subject generally precedes the verb ; but it is sometimes placed after the 
verb or the auxiliary; as, "Will he go?" "Go thou;" " Knowest thou the land?" 
"Were he good, he would be happy ;" ' Here am J;" "Great is Diana;" " There is 
he that deceived us ;" " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it ;" " Said he;" 
"Began the reverend sage;" "Him followed his next mate" 

8. Nominatives that should have verbs are sometimes improperly left without 
them ; as, " These evils were caused by Catiline who, if he had been punished, the 
republic would not have been exposed to so great dangers." Here the nominative 
who is without a verb. The idea may be expressed thus : " These evils were caused 
by Catiline, the punishment of whom would have prevented the republic from being 
exposed to so great dangers." Or who may be omitted, the rest of the sentence 
remaining as it is : " These evils were caused by Catiline ; if he had been punished," 
etc. " This man, though he has much knowledge, yet he keeps it all to himself," 
should be " Though this man has," etc. 

9. It is in the use of the objective case of pronouns for the nominative that this 
rule is violated, the nominative and objective of other nouns being the same in form. 
This violation occurs chiefly after as and than; as, " The sun beholds not 'twixt the 
poles a childe so excellent as Mm" — Rose's Ariosto. " If they are more precocious 
than us, it is because they are more feminine than us." — Readers Savage Africa.^ 

10. The objective whom in certain constructions is often carelessly used for the 
nominative who, sometimes even by good writers ; as, " She was the servant, whom 
we found was a more truth-telling person than her mistress." — Scott. That is, whom 
was, the intervening words, we found, having nothing to do with the form of the 
pronoun. 

If the infinitive to be had been used instead of was, whom would have been cor- 
rect — " Whom we found to be," etc. (See Remark 1.) 

11. The objective whomsoever is sometimes used instead of the nominative ivhbso- 
ever ; as, "Threatening to shoot whomsoever dared to stop him." — Scott. The relative 
pronoun here should be in the nominative case, as it is the subject of the verb dared. 
The object of to shoot is the omitted antecedent. 

12. In methinks, me is not the objective incorrectly used for the nominative, but 
the old dative=to me. Thincan in Anglo-Saxon means to seem, and methinks=it 
seems to me. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the subjects and the verbs : 

The gloomy night is gathering fast; 

Loud roars the wild, inconstant blast. — Burns. 



* "But being a preposition, it follows that such phrases as none but he are ungram- 
matical. A preposition must have the accusative case after it." — Mason's English 
Grammar, p. 89. None but he is as good English as Mr. Mason ever wrote even in his 
most grammatical mood. 

i"As, in a few expressions, is rather used to connect words in the sense of appo- 
sition than as parts of distinct clauses ; as, 'England can spare such men as him/— 
Brougham. Not 'such men as lie is,' but 'such men, including him,' or simply 
'him.' "— KerVs Shorter Course in English Grammar. "Such men as he is" is pre- 
cisely what Brougham meant, and he would scarcely have accepted this explanation 
of his careless expression. 



190 SYNTAX. 

Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire, 
And shook his very frame for ire. — Scott. 

2. Correct the errors: 

" Them that seek knowledge will find it." 

Them is incorrect — it is employed as the subject of the verb will 
find, and it should be in the nominative case, they. " The subject of a 
finite verb," etc. 

Them that seek knowledge will find it. Him and me are of the 
same age. Her and me will be scolded. You are as old as her. Who 
has a knife? Me. He has more books than me. He was by nature 
less ready than her. — A. Trollope. He has dined here, and me with 
him. — Jeffrey. Her brother was two years younger than me. — Dr. 
A. Carlyle. How far less blessed am I than them. — Mickle. To such 
as him Mr. Yavasor was not averse to make known the secrets of his 
prison-house. — A. Trollope. I may prove myself as gallant a soldier 
as him whom she has preferred. — Lever. A much more numerous lot 
was there almost as soon as them. — A. Trollope. 

[Kemark 10.] She professed the greatest regard for the lady, whom, 
she assured us, was an angel. — Scott. She went on to name some of her 
acquaintance whom she knew would be there. — Thomas Hughes. The 
poor relations caught just the people whom they knew would like it. — 
Dickens. Whom I afterwards perceived was regarded as a legal author- 
ity. — Lever. He longed to get at L' Estrange, whom he supposed would 
be as wroth at this turn in the wheel of fortune as himself. — Bulwer. 
We rode to visit some emigrants whom we understood were there. — 
Dr. A. Carlyle. It is much easier to respect a man who has always had 
respect than to respect a man whom we know was last year no better 
than ourselves. — Boswell. This was a proof of the attachment of the 
Irish people to all whom they knew would protect them. — Sir Jonah 
Barrington. 

[Kemark 10, second paragraph.] Who I afterwards perceived to be 
regarded as a legal authority. We rode to visit some emigrants who 
we understood to be there. The lady who she declared to be an angel. 
He was associated with those who we knew to be villains. Some of 
her acquaintances who she knew to be there. 

[Kemark 11.] She always volunteered that information to whom- 
soever would receive it. — Dickens. Your Grace could in those days 
make fools of whomsoever approached you. — Scott. 

[Kemark 8.] Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men 
are so constituted as to respect genuine merit. The cabinet, though it 
be exquisitely wrought and very rich, yet it comes infinitely short in 
value of the jewel that is hid and laid up in it. — Tillotson. 



PKEDICATE-NOMINATTVE. 191 



EULE II. 

A noun modifying an intransitive verb or a verb in the 
passive voice must be in the nominative case; as, "It is If 
"He was called John" 

Remarks. — 1. The modifying nominative is called the predicate-nominative. 

2. Ii> such peculiar constructions as " He was taught grammar" verbs in the 
passive voice are modified by objectives. (See Rule V, Remark 11.) 

3. The rule for the predicate-nominative is generally given in some such form 
as this : " Intransitive and passive verbs take the same case after them as before 
them when both words refer to the same thing." But participles, gerunds, and 
infinitives in their ordinary use, though they have no subjects, are modified in 
exactly the same way as verbs that have subjects ; as, " It is said to be he;" "I have 
no doubt of its being he." The rule therefore should be so expressed as to include 
these verbal forms. 

4. When the infinitive has a subject in the objective the noun in the predicate is 
in the objective ; as, " He took her to be me." 

5. The verbs most frequently modified by a predicate-nominative are be, become, 
continue, appear, look, and the passive of the verbs call, name, make, render, appoint, 
elect, constitute, esteem, reckon, etc. 

6. An infinitive, a gerund, or a proposition may be employed as predicate- 
nominative; as, "To know her is to love her;" "Seeing is believing;" "The truth 
is that he is dishonest." 

7. The predicate-nominative is usually placed after the verb, but it is sometimes 
placed before the verb, particularly when it is or is modified by an interrogative or 
an indefinite pronoun; as, "Who is he?" "Tell me whose son he is;" " The dog it 
was that died ;" " He is not the same man that he was." 

8. "Several of our journals hazard conjectures as to whom this correspondent 
was." If the subject and predicate were in the usual order, the subordinate propo- 
sition would be, " This correspondent was whom." Whom should be who, a nomina- 
tive modifying the intransitive verb was. 

" That depends partly on whom the woman may be and partly on whom the man 
may be." — A. Trollope. " The woman may be whom;" " The man may be whom." 

To use some other word instead of whom will help us to understand the con- 
struction of such sentences. " Whom do men say that I am?" "Do men say that 
I am he?" 

9. The number and person of the predicate-nominative may be different from 
those of the subject ; as, " Thou art he ;" " Words are wind." 

10. When the pronoun it is used before any part of the verb to be the predicate- 
nominative may be in either number and of any person or gender; as, " It was I;" 
" It is he;" " It. was the dog that died ;" " It is men that are coming." 

In such sentences as the two last the adjective-proposition really modifies the 
subject—" It that died was the dog ;" but the verb takes the person and number of 
the predicate-nominative, as if it were the predicate-nominative that is modified — 
" It that are coming is men." 

11. The form of the verb is not affected by the predicate-nominative; whatever 
affects the form of the verb is regarded as the subject; as, "His pavilion were dark 
waters and thick clouds of the sky "=" Dark waters and thick clouds of the sky 
were his pavilion." 

But such forms as " His pavilion were," etc., are harsh, and it is better to express 
the idea in a different way ; as, " His pavilion was formed of dark waters," etc. 



192 SYNTAX. 

" The wages of sin is death." Here wages is used as singular, as it is in the 
following passage : " He that earneth wages earneth wages to put it in a bag with 
holes."— English Bible. 

12. " We may extend the reasoning to the word me, and call it also a secondary or 
equivalent nominative ; inasmuch as such phrases as itts me=it is I are common. 
Now to call such expressions incorrect is to assume the point. No one says that 
c' est moi is bad French, and that c' est je is good. Caution. Observe, however, that 
the expression it is me=it is I will not justify the use of it is him, it is her=it is he, 
it is $he. Me, ye, you are what may be called indifferent forms, i. e., nominative as 
much as accusative, and accusative as much as nominative. Him and hey, on the 
other hand, are not indifferent. The m and r are respectively the signs of cases 
other than the nominative." — Latham's Hand-book of the English Language. 

The first argument presented here is that it is me is common. It is him and it is 
her are equally as common, and the argument from commonness would justify the 
forms against which Dr. Latham cautions his readers. 

The second argument is that c' est moi is good French. The same argument (?) 
would prove that it are them is good English. " Now to call such expressions incor- 
rect is to assume the point. No one says that ce sont eux is bad French, and that 
c' est Us is good." 

But the only valid argument in favor of any word or expression is that it is 
"common." No matter what may be the etymology of a word, no matter what 
may be the usage of other languages, it is the commonness that establishes the prin- 
ciple. The commonness, however, must be of the right kind, and commonness 
among illiterate or careless persons is not of the right kind. It is " common " in 
some parts of England to say, "It is good enough for he;" "The horses will not 
stand; hold they.'" It is not possible that Dr. Latham was so ignorant as to believe 
that the form it is me is " common " among good writers ; for the mere tyro in liter- 
ature knows better. A good writer may happen to use this form, just as a well- 
educated person may happen to say, "I expect he has gone;" but it is only in a 
moment of carelessness that he will do so. Dr. Latham's defense of it is me is 
simply an etymological freak, or an instance of what Mr. Marsh expressively calls 
" philological coxcombry." 

Dean Alford in that pretentious work, " The Queen's English," regards Dr. 
Latham when maintaining the correctness of it is me as "a real grammarian;" 
but he seems to regard him as no better than one of the "grammarians of the 
smaller order" when he condemns it is him, it is her. The Dean also asserts the 
correctness of thee in Thomson's line, " The nations not so blest as thee."* He 
is followed by Mr. Bain, Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen, who 
defends the use of such expressions as "He is taller than me" by quoting from 
Shakespeare " No mightier than thyself or me." This is only an accidental slip 
of Shakespeare's. To give such a slip as a sample of Shakespeare's style is like 
giving a stumble as a sample of a man's walk. Shakespeare's rule is to use the 
nominative in all the forms mentioned above. Let us examine the play "Julius 
Caesar," which contains the passage quoted, and see if he gives countenance to 
Latham and the improvers on Latham. "In awe of such a thing as J myself." 
"Endure the winter's cold as well as he." "Caesar is more dangerous than he." 



* If when conducting the service in the Cathedral of Canterbury Dean Alford 
had had the language amended in accordance with his principles (?), so as to read, 
"It is him that hath made us, and not us ourselves," he would have produced an 
effect. The actor who should say, " This is me, Hamlet the Dane," would be likely 
to hear the cry of " Murder !" in tones indicating great vigor of lungs and be forced 
to go behind the scenes to do his murder. 



PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 193 

"That I am he." "Is not that he that lies upon the ground?" "Is not that 
Jie?" "No, this was he." The advocates of the objective forms have quoted 
from " King Lear " the Fool's expression, "And yet I would not be thee, nunele." 
Let us see how much support the rest of the play gives to these objective forms. 
"Be as well neighbored, pitied, and relieved as thou." "'Tis they have put him 
on the old man's death." "It is both he and she." "'Tis he." " 'T was he." 
"Alack ! 't is he." " O ! this is he." Let us take another play at random, "As You 
Like It." "Are as much bound to him as I." " I think of as many matters as he." 
" Such a one as she." " 'T is he." "Are you he?" " 'T was I, but 't is not I." " For 
I am he," " I '11 have no father, if you be not he." " I '11 have no husband, if you 
be not he." "Nor ne'er wed woman, if you be not she." Look at a single act of 
another play, "Othello." "'Tis he." "Signior Lodovico? He, sir." "Even he, 
sir." "He, he, 't is he." "As I." "It was not Z" "'T was I that killed her*" "Ay, 
't was he that told me first." " That 's he that was Othello." 

From Anglo-Saxon times down to the present* it is the nominative that has been 
used in such constructions, and it is as incorrect to use the objective as it would be 
to say in English, "John struck I," or to say in Latin, "Cicero est oratorem." 

EXERCISES. 
1. Point out the predicate-nominative in each of the following sentences : 
She is a queen. She walks a queen. He is' an orator. He is con- 
sidered a poet. Procrastination is the thief of time. — Young. I am he. 
Are you the agent? That tree is an oak. "Washington was elected 
President of the United States. He was elected consul. The child is 
father of the man. — Wordsworth. Thy word is truth. Stephen died a 
martyr. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. — English 
Bible. I come no enemy. — Milton. His youngest child is a daughter. 
And he returned a friend who came a foe. — Pope. He reigned absolute 
monarch. He seems the best man for the place. It was the owl that 
shrieked. Some Scottish statesmen who were zealous for the king's 
prerogative had been bred Presbyterians. — Macaulay. It is I that 
perceive, I that imagine, I that attend, I that compare, I that feel, I 
that will, I that am conscious. — Sir William Hamilton. Art thou that 
traitor angel? Art thou he who first broke peace in heaven? — Milton. 
[Remark 3.] He was unwilling to be chairman. He was averse to 
being chairman. I wish to be your friend. He hopes to be elected 
governor. There was a certain man called Cornelius. Have you heard 
of his having been taken prisoner? There is no doubt of his being a 
statesman. To become a grammarian requires study. He is in danger 
of becoming a coxcomb. He must think of turning tutor again. — 
Macaulay. Being a prudent man, he would not take that course. I 
have some recollection of his father's being a judge. To be the slave 
of passion is of all slavery the most wretched. I have no objection to 
his being umpire. He affects to be a lord. 

-Among Milton's "Classical Affectations" may be found the objective after than, 
because in Latin the ablative is used after the comparative. 

17 



194 SYNTAX. 

[Kemark 7.] Who art thou? Who am I ? I will tell thee who I 

am. Who is he? Whose daughter is she? Tell me whose daughter 
she is. Whose house is that? She is not the same woman that she 
was. The woman it is that suffers. Night it must be ere Friedland's 
star will beam. — Carlyle. A man he was to all the country dear. — 
Goldsmith. 

2. Correct the errors: 

It was not me that broke the chair. It was not her ; it was him. 
It is me that must read it. It was us that saw him fall. If I were 
him, I would not do that. It is me that he means. Is it him that has 
written this letter ? It is them we are to hold accountable. So long 
as there was any body, no matter whom [it was], within reach of the 
sound of his voice. — Wilkie Collins. My conductor answered that it 
was him. 

[Kemark 3.] I am not sure of its being him. It is said to be him 
that did it. It is supposed to be her. Its being me must make no 
difference. 

[Remark 4.] I took it to be she. Who do you take me to be? I 
believe it to be he. He had taken Oliver to be he. — Dickens. Who did 
you suppose it to be ? I know it to be they. 

RULE III. 

A noun used independently or absolutely must be in the 
nominative case. 

A noun is said to be used independently— 

1. When in a direct address it stands without a verb; as, "JameSy 
did you see him ?" 

2. In mere exclamations; as, " O the times/ O the manners!" 

3. When the attention is called to an object before an affirmation is 
made respecting it; as, "My friends, where are they?" 

Nouns used in any of these ways are said to be in the nominative 
case independent. 

A noun is said to be used absolutely when that noun and a parti- 
ciple are used instead of a subordinate proposition ; as, " Honor being 
lost, all is lost." " Honor being lost "=" When honor is lost." 

A noun used in this way is said to be in the nominative case absolute. 

Remarks. — I. Being and having been are sometimes omitted ; as, 
"Her wheel at rest, the matron thrills no more 
With treasured tales and legendary lore."— Rogers. 
2. Some words of very general signification, such as men, we, you, they, are often 
omitted before the participle ; as, " Every thing was comfortless and forlorn, [we] 



NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT AND ABSOLUTE. 195 

excepting a crew of very hard-drinking ducks."— Irving, "Ancient Germany, [we] 
excluding from its independent limits the provinces westward of the Rhine, ex- 
tended itself over a third part of Europe." — Gibbon. (See Remark 9, p. 137.) 

The same construction may be seen in the following passages : " His conduct, 
viewing it in the most favorable light, was discreditable ;" "Regarding the matter in 
this light, he seems to have been very badly treated;" " There were twenty men, 
including the officers ;" " Her reading, generally speaking, was excellent ;" "Seeing 
that he is so obstinate, let us leave him ;" "ConsideHng that he has had so little time, 
he has made great progress;" "Granting he had the right, he was very rash;" 
"Admitting his veracity, his testimony is not conclusive ;" "Allowing the truth of 
this statement^ is he to be released ?" 

3. Some words generally regarded as prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs are 
really participles belonging to nouns in the nominative absolute ; as, "During his 
life, he was persecuted ;" "Pending the suit, he held the property ;" "Notwithstanding 
his denial, I believe him guilty." (See Remarks 10, 11, p. 137.) " None shall mistress 
be of it save I alone." — Shakespeare. J is in the nominative absolute with save. (See 
Remark 13, pp. 138, 139, and " Recapitulation," p. 40, and note.) 

Ago is the participle agone, from which the sound of n has been dropped. "Three 
days agone I fell sick." — English Bible. " He 's drunk, Sir Toby, an hour agone.'' 1 — 
Shakespeare. (See Remark 13, p. 147.) In these passages days and hour are in the 
nominative case absolute with the participle agone. " Ten years ago he was a pros- 
perous man." Years is in the nominative case absolute with the participle ago. 

4. A noun-proposition may be used like a noun in the nominative absolute ; as, 
" That he is of age being admitted ;" "Admitted that he is of age." The noun-proposition, 
that he is of age, is here regarded as a noun (a unit) in the nominative absolute with 
the participle. "Being that I flow in grief, the smallest twine may lead me." — 
Shakespeare. The noun-proposition, that I flow in grief, is used as a noun in the 
nominative absolute with the participle being — that I flow in grief being. (See 
Remark 4, pp. 152, 153.) 

The following are examples of the same construction: "Granted that he has the 
ability, yet he has not the energy ;" "Admitted he could have written it, we wish to 
know whether he did write it;" "He had no advantage over his opponent, except 
that he was favored by the general ;" "And so we will, provided that he win her;" 
" It has happened as I would have it, save that he comes not along with her ;" " He 
will accept the office, notwithstanding he dislikes it." Such sentences may be either 
with or without that.* 

5. The objective should not be used for the nominative absolute. "I over- 
thrown," not "Me overthrown."! 

* To treat the participles in such sentences as what they are, participles, simpli- 
fies analysis and parsing ; while to treat them as what they are not, conjunctions, 
often makes a disagreeable jumble. "And so we will, provided he win her." Here 
provided is said to be a conjunction connecting the two propositions ; but we may 
insert that, which also is said to be a conjunction, and what does that connect ? "And 
so we will, if that he win her."="And so we will, given that he win her." To regard 
if in such forms as if that he win her as a participle renders the construction simple 
and intelligible ; while to regard if and that as conjunctions serves only to perplex. 
To regard if as the imperative makes the construction equally simple ; the propo- 
sition following if being in that case the object of if. (See Remark 6, pp. 153, 154.) 

f " Milton's me overthrown is classic affectation."— March's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, 
p. 148. In the Anglo-Saxon language the dative is the case absolute ; but Milton 
did not use the form me overthrown in imitation of the Anglo-Saxon dative, but in 
imitation of the Latin ablative absolute. 



196 SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the nouns in the nominative case independent: 

Plato, thou reasonest well. — Addison. O thou that rollest above, 
whence are thy beams, O sun! — Ossian. Come, rest in this bosom, 
my own stricken deer. — Moore. Hamlet, thou hast thy father much 
offended. Mother, you have my father much offended. — Shakespeare. 
The sky is changed — and such a change! O night 
And storm and darkness! ye are wondrous strong. — Byron. 
O the perversity of human nature! O the misery I have suffered! 
The foe! they come, they come! — Byron. Silence how deep, and 
darkness how profound! — Young. 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? — Pope. 

My friends, do they now and then send 

A wish or a thought after me? — Cowper. 

2. Point out the nouns in the nominative case absolute: 

Hearts agreeing, heads may differ. The rain having ceased, we 
may proceed on our way. These matters having been arranged, the 
company separated. His horse being unmanageable, he dismounted. 
The master being absent, the business was neglected. I am loved of 
all ladies, only you excepted. — Shakespeare. I '11 rhyme you so eight 
years together, dinners and suppers and sleeping-hours excepted. — Id. 
The jarring states, obsequious now, 
View the patriot's hand on high, 
Thunder gathering on his brow, 
Lightning flashing from his eye. 
[Kem. 1.] Self-love and reason to one end aspire, 

Pain their aversion, pleasure their desire. — Pope. 

Pire in each eye and papers in each hand, 

They rave, recite, and madden round the land. — Id. 

Par in a wild, unknown to public view, 
Prom youth to age a reverend hermit grew; 
The moss his bed, the cave his humble cell, 
His food the fruits, his drink the crystal well; 
Kemote from men, with God he passed his days, 
Prayer all his business, all his pleasure praise. — Parnell. 

[Kemark 2.] Excluding the officers, there were fifty men. Kegarding 
the condition of his troops, he succeeded as well as could be expected. 
Granting him ability, where is his honesty? Seeing gentle words will 
not prevail, assail them with the army of the king. — Shakespeare. 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 197 

[Remark 3.] During the trial, he showed no excitement. Pending 
the discussion, I will give no opinion. Valerian resolved, notwith- 
standing his advanced age, to march in person to the defense of the 
Euphrates. — Gibbon. Save his good broadsword, he weapon had 
none. — Scott. How his audit stands who knows, save Heaven.— 
Shakespeare. A year ago, I saw him in Eome. You can not take 
from me any thing that I will more willingly part withal, except 
my life, except my life, except my life. — Shakespeare. 

That mortal dint, 
Save He who reigns above, none can resist. — Milton. 

[Remark 4.] That he is of sound mind being granted, he has power 
to do this. Provided that you will furnish him with money enough, he 
will go. Admitted that your statement is correct, it does not relieve 
you from blame. I accept your statement, notwithstanding that there 
are so many against you. He has every thing in his favor, except that 
he is so indolent. Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain 
that build it. — English Bible. 

3. Correct the errors: 

[Remark 5.] Him destroyed, the rest will yield. Her having told 
me, I must believe it. Them being absent, the cause can not be 
decided. 

RULE IV. 

A noun in the possessive case modifies another noun; as, 
"John's book has his name in it." 

Here the noun John's modifies or limits the application of the noun 
book; the word book itself is applicable to any book, but the possessive 
John's limits the application to a particular book.* 

Remarks. — 1. The modified noun is sometimes omitted; as, "This book is 
Henry's [book] ;" " This is a book of Henry's [books] ;" " He is at the governor's 
[house] ;" " He admires St. Paul's [church]." 

With the pronouns ours, yours, hers, theirs the modified noun is never expressed, 
these forms being appropriated for use when the modified nouns are omitted ; as, 
" This book is yours [book] ;" " This is a book of yours [books]." At present mine 
and thine are seldom used with the modified noun expressed ; they were formerly 
used before words beginning with a vowel or h ; as, " Mine own tears." — Shakespeare. 
" Thine eye shall be instructed, and thine heart," etc.—Cowper. (See Rems. 1, 2, p. 60.) 

2. Pronouns never take the apostrophe. Write yours, not i/our's. 

3. When two or more nouns are employed to designate one object the possessive 
sign is added to the last noun ; as, " General Washington's tent ;" " Paul the apostle's 

* Some have absurdly contended that the possessive case is not a noun, but an 
adjective. "That I have ta'en away this old man's daughter."— Shakespeare. If 
man's is an adjective, this and old must be adverbs ! 



198 SYNTAX. 

advice ;" " Smith the bookseller's house ;" " The Duke of Wellington's army." Here 
Wellington's is not in the possessive ease, but in the objective after the preposition of; 
but the whole title is given as one name, and the possessive sign is placed at the end. 
The possessive sign is placed thus only when the words are so closely connected 
as to be in effect one name. It is correct to say, "John Brown of Haddington's 
Works," because the adjunct of Haddington is generally employed as part of the 
designation of a particular John Brown; but if this adjunct were employed merely 
to point out the place of residence, it would not be correct to place the possessive 
sign after it. We should then say, "The works of John Brown, of Haddington." 
If the modified noun is not expressed, we may say either "At Smith the book- 
seller's " or "At Smith's, the bookseller." In the latter case there is a comma 
between the two nouns ; and if the modified noun is expressed after the nouns 
denoting the possessor, there should be a comma before it ; as, " Mr. Good, the 
tailor's, servant ' , ==" servant of Mr. Good, the tailor." Without the comma before 
servant the expression would represent Mr. Good as being the tailor's servant — " Mr. 
Good, the tailor's servant." 

4. After the possessive sign the ear requires the name of the thing possessed to 
be in close connection with it ; therefore no term merely explanatory, nothing that 
requires to be set off by the comma, should come between them. " They con- 
demned King Corney's, as he was called, dissipated habits " should be " They 
condemned the dissipated habits of King Corney, as he was called." 

" He attends to every body else's business, but not to his own." Here, in order to 
have the possessive sign immediately before the modified noun, we remove it from 
the noun in the possessive case and place it after the adjective belonging to the noun. 

5. When we say, " These are John's and Eliza's books," using the possessive 
sign with both nouns, we mean that some of the books belong to John and some to 
Eliza ; when we say, " These are John and Eliza's books," using the possessive sign 
with the last noun only, we mean that all the books are owned in common by John 
and Eliza. "Can you tell me whether he has been informed of Sir Anthony and 
Miss Melville's arrival ?"— Sheridan. Sir Anthony and Miss Melville arrived in com- 
pany with each other. " Requesting his consent to Sam and Mr. Winkle's remaining 
at Bristol."— Dickens. The remaining was to be common to both. 

6. Goold Brown and others maintain that such expressions as "Johnson's and 
Richardson's Dictionaries " are incorrect, because we can not. say, "Johnson's Diction- 
aries and Richardson's Dictionaries." Of course we do not say, "Johnson's Dictionaries" 
for the very good reason that we are thinking of but one thing ; but we do say, 
"Johnson's and Richardson's Dictionaries" for the equally good reason that we are 
thinking of two things. We say, "The Old and New Testaments," because we are 
thinking of two Testaments. A person holding in his hand a knife belonging to 
John and another knife belonging to William would hardly venture to say, " These 
are John's and William's knife," even though he might have "Brown's Grammar of 
English Grammars" open before him. 

The attempt to better the English by using the form "Johnson's Dictionary and 
Richardson's " is a failure ; for this form is stiff and pedantic. A speaker may say, 
" I have consulted Johnson's Dictionary," and then add, "and Richardson's," as the 
result of a second thought ; but if he sets out to mention both, this form is contrary 
to the English idiom. 

" He had his father's and mother's advice" is correct, because advice is an abstract 
noun, having no plural in the sense in which it is here used. 

7. The relation of possession may be denoted by the preposition of with the 
objective; as, "The house of my father "==" My father's house." This form is 
sometimes called the Norman genitive (possessive). 

This form does not always denote possession. "A crown of gold " signifies a 
crown made of gold ; "A house of representatives " signifies a house composed of 
representatives. In these expressions the possessive could not have been used. 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 199 

When the idea may be expressed by either of these forms we should use that 
which will tend most to produce smoothness and clearness. Instead of " His son's 
wife's sister " we should say, " The sister of his son's wife ;" instead of " The distress 
of the son of the king" we should say, " The distress of the king's son." 

" The love of God " may mean either the love that God feels or the love that is 
felt toward God; but "God's love" denotes only the love that God feels. "My 
father's picture " means a picture owned by my father ; " a picture of my father " 
means a likeness of my father, whether he owns it or not; "a picture of my 
father's" means one of several pictures owned by my father. 

Coleridge and others have maintained that none but nouns denoting persons or 
personified objects should take the possessive case, and that it is only in modern 
usage that nouns denoting objects of any other kind do take it* But, to say nothing 
of Anglo-Saxon, the names of objects other than persons or personified objects take 
the possessive case in the writings of old English authors. In the cauldron of the 
Witches in " Macbeth " are 

"Adder's fork and blind-worm's sting, 
"Lizard's leg and owlet's wing." 

The names of even inanimate objects often take the possessive case ; as, "Summer's 
day, winter's cold, cannon's mouth." "Tears of compassion," however, is better 
than "compassion's tears." 

8. In the form " This book is Henry's" the word book, modified by the posses- 
sive Henry's, is supplied by the context; but in such expressions as "Thou art 
Freedom's now and Fame's "==" Thou belongest to Freedom now and Fame," the 
modified noun is not supplied by the context. It is some such word as property or 
possession. 

9. " This is a book of Henry's "=" This is one of Henry's books," implies that 
Henry has several books of which this book is one ; but such forms have been per- 
verted so as to be used in familiar language when there is no thought of more than 
one; as, "That face of his is enough to condemn him." 

10. A gerund, either alone or modified by other words, may be modified by a 
noun in the possessive case ; as, " I am opposed to John's writing ;" " I am opposed 
to his devoting himself to that subject." 

This is one of the most common idioms of the language, and no case but the 
possessive should be used in such sentences as the preceding. " I am opposed 
to John writing" can mean nothing if it does not mean that I am opposed to John, 
who is writing. 

Brown calls this form "questionable English;" but his objections arise from 
his failure to distinguish the gerund, the noun, from the participle, the adjective. 

* " O Robinson I if I could, or if I dared, act and feel as Moore and his set do, 
what havoc could I not make among their crockery-ware ! Why, there are not three 
lines together [in ' Lalla Rookh '] without some adulteration of common English, 
and the ever-recurring blunder of using the possessive case, compassion's tears, etc., 
for the preposition of— a blunder of which I have found no instances earlier than 
Dryden's slovenly verses written for the trade. The rule is that the case 's is always 
personal; either it marks a person, or a personification, or the relique of some pro- 
verbial personification ; as, ' Who for their belly's sake,' in ' Lycidas.' But for A to 
weep the tears of B [ Coleridge means that to say ' compassion's tears ' makes 
compassion a person, and that to say that A weeps 'compassion's tears' is to say 
that he weeps the tears of another person] puts me in mind of the exquisite pas- 
sage in Rabelais where Pantagruel gives the page his cap, and begs him to go down 
into the court-yard, and curse and swear for him about half an hour or so."— Extract 
from a letter from Coleridge : Henry Crabb Robinson's Diary, I, 363. 



200 SYNTAX. 

a proper conception of the distinction would have saved him the labor of writing 
several pages of confusion. The following are examples of this idiom: "The 
cause, sir, of my standing here." — Shakespeare. "His clearly predicting the future 
revelation of this doctrine." — Dr. Barrow. " That point of your seeming to be fallen 
out with God." — Sir William Temple. "Whose mauling them about their heads." — 
Thos. Fuller. " Upon the fellow's telling him he would warrant it."— Addison. " The 
truth of Mrs. Bargrave's seeing Mrs. Veal's apparition." — Defoe. "His living thus 
in a course of flattery." — Pope. "You will have heard of Marshal Belleisle's being 
made a prisoner."— H orace Walpole. "An account of his Catholic Majesty's having 
agreed to the neutrality." — Hume. " The opportunity of Gauntlet's being alone with 
him." — Smollett. " This she imputed to Joseph's having discovered to her what 
passed." — Fielding. " Upon my landlord's leaving the room." — Goldsmith. " I put a 
positive interdict on my room's being exhibited." — Irving. " The old story of Sir 
Walter Raleigh's looking from his prison-window." — Carlyle. 

Some modern writers drop the 's ; but what they would say about the case of the 
noun that is left it is hard to tell. " Not a morning passes without Garibaldi being 
seen at this chosen spot." Without he being seen, or without him being seen? If 
the writer of the following passage is authority on the subject of this neologism, it 
should seem that the noun used with the gerund is in the nominative case: "He 
told Mr. Welch about he and Charlie getting the pig." — Rev. Elijah Kellogg. But it is 
seldom that any writer forgets English so much as to use any case of pronouns but 
the possessive. 

Dickens and Scott use both the form with 's and the form without 's; as, " The 
probability of Miss Nickleby's arriving at this happy consummation." — Dickens. "He 
had given his gracious consent to the young couple commencing housekeeping."-Jd. 
" The probability of Lord Evandale's becoming a mediator." — Scott. " The motto 
alludes to the author returning to the stage repeatedly."— Id. The second passage 
from Dickens might mean that the person had given his consent about something 
to the young couple who were commencing housekeeping. The motto to which Sir 
Walter refers in the second passage does not allude to the author, but to the author's 
returning. 

" There was no opportunity for his zeal displaying itself."— Scott. "I have some 
sense of suspicion and distrust being poor qualities in one of my years." — Dickens. 
In neither of these passages should the gerund have been used at all. The first 
sentence should be, " There was no opportunity for his zeal to display itself;" the 
second should be, " I have some sense that suspicion and distrust are poor qualities 
in one of my years." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the nouns modified by nouns in the possessive case : 

One man's loss is sometimes another man's gain. John's book was 
found on James's table. This man was taken by the Duke's officers, 
who, in obedience to their master's directions, had driven him from all 
his hiding-places. 

[Remark 1.] This desk is William's. He went to Mr. Smith's. 
He visited St. Peter's. Edward's books are not Peter's. My books 
are not yours. Your books are not mine. Thy father's virtue k not 
thine. That flower is Mary's. That flower is hers. This pen is one 
of James's. That pen is one of yours. 

[Remark 3.] I saw him in Colonel Thomson's field. The Earl of 
Orford's son was very ill. They remember Judge Owen's charge. I 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 201 

read General Jackson's letter. The Duke of Ormond's daughter was 
married. 

[Remark 5.] These are John's and William's books. These are 
John and William's books. He lives north of Mason and Dixon's 
line. Let us go to Johnson and Fletcher's factory. 

[Remark 6.] Smith's and Jones's wives were there. I have con- 
sulted Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries. 

[Remark 8.] Thou art Glory's now. Gay hope is theirs. The 
sunshine of the breast is hers. The present moment alone is ours. 

[Remark 10.] Upon his advancing towards me with a whisper 
I expected to hear some secret piece of news. — Addison. My sensa- 
tions were too violent to permit my attempting her rescue. — Goldsmith, 
His discourse was broken off by his man's telling him he had called a 
coach. — Addison. All my ideas were put to flight by my intolerable 
landlady's tapping at the door. — Irving. What was to be expected 
from the unfortunate girl's uniting her fate to that of a character so 
notorious as Robertson's. — Scott. 

2. Correct the errors : 

His brothers crime is not his. A mothers tenderness and a fathers 
care are natures gifts for mans advantage. John Thomson his book. 
Lucy Morrow her book. 

[Remark 2.] This book is your's. The tree is known by it's fruit. 
You left your books and took our's and their' s. 

[Remark 3.] At Smith's the bookseller's house. The people began 
to say that Fred's molasses was sweeter than any body's else. — Rev. 
E. Kellogg. Brown's the surgeon's knife. 

[Remark 4.] She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, 
excellent understanding. She praised the child's, as she called him, 
ready wit. This Was Mr. White's, the gentleman who informed me, 
account of the affair. 

[Remark 6.] Brown's and Jones's wife were there. Towne's and 
Ray's Arithmetic. 

[Remark 7.] The world's government is not left to chance. She 
married my son's wife's brother. The extent of the prerogative of the 
King of England is sufficiently ascertained. It was necessary to have 
the physician's and surgeon's advice. It was the men's, women's, and 
children's lot to suffer. This is a picture of my father ; it is a portrait 
of the Emperor Nicholas. 

[Remark 10.] He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. 
They have no notion of the same person possessing different accom- 
plishments. Such was the occasion of Simon Glover presenting himself 
at the house of Henry Gow. — Scott. He pointed out the difficulty of 



202 SYNTAX. 

counsel doing justice without preparation. — Lord Campbell. On the 
gentleman going up to his assistance. — Dean Ramsay. The question 
may he settled hy the king running away. Nor has any proof yet 
been found of Weston being put into the cell to kill Overbury. — W. H. 
Dixon. So far from women exercising little or no influence over the 
progress of knowledge, they are capable of exercising, and have exer- 
cised, an enormous influence. — Buckle. To prevent it taking fire. — 
Rev. E. Kellogg. These are all reasons for suspicion falling on him. — 
Dickens. She could scarce conceive the possibility of her will being 
opposed, far less that of its being treated with disregard.*— Scott. 

KULE V. 

The object of a transitive verb in the active voice must be 
in the objective case; as, "She sees me? "They built a house." 

Remarks. — 1. Participles, gerunds, and infinitives have objects like finite verbs ; 
as, " Seeing me ;" " To see me ;" " They are building a house." 

2. An infinitive, a gerund, or a proposition may be the object of a transitive 
verb; as, "Boys love to play;" "Boys love playing;" "I know who lives here." 

3. In the usual order of arrangement the subject precedes and the object follows 
the verb. When a pronoun is used either as subject or object the object is some- 
times placed before the verb; as, "Him I know;" "This subject he has examined." 
The form of the pronoun in each of these sentences prevents any ambiguity ; but 
from " Darius Alexander conquered " we can not learn who conquered. 

But some sentences containing no pronouns may be of such a character that the 
object may be placed before the verb without causing ambiguity ; as, " Such charms 
has the maiden;" "So great power does the king possess." Placing the object 
before the verb renders it more emphatic. 

4. Relative, interrogative, and indefinite pronouns are placed as near as possible 
to the beginning of their propositions, and thus they precede the verb; as, "The 
man whom I met ;" " Whom did you see ?" 

5. The object is sometimes omitted when it is easily supplied or when the idea 
is designedly left indefinite ; as, " He reads every day." The object is frequently 
omitted when it is a relative pronoun ; as, " This is the man I saw." Here whom or 
that, the object of saw, is omitted. 

6. Some verbs usually intransitive may become transitive by taking objectives 
of signification kindred to their own; as, "He runs a race;" "They live a happy 
life." Allied to this construction are such expressions as the following: "Death 
grinned horribly a ghastly smile;" " Her lips blush deeper meets;" " Groves whose 
rich trees wept odorous gums and balms." 

7. Some verbs usually intransitive are sometimes made transitive by being used 
in a causative sense; as, "He galloped his horse up the hill"="He caused his 
horse to gallop up the hill." 

The verb learn has sometimes been used in a causative sense and made to take 
an objective denoting the person ; as, " He learned me grammar." As we have the 
verb teach with this meaning, this use of learn should be avoided. 

* Here the author puts its in the possessive, though he has just used " will being 
opposed." 



OBJECT OF TRANSITIVE VERB. 203 

The objective it is sometimes used as a kind of expletive after verbs usually 
intransitive; as, <<Come and tdp it ag you gQ 

On the light fantastic toe." — Milton. 

8. Transitive verbs are sometimes improperly used as transitive by having a 
preposition placed between them and the objects ; as, "The house caught on fire ;" 
"I can not allow of that." 

We may say, "This does not admit such a construction," or "This does not 
admit of such a construction;" "He plays the flute," or "He plays on the flute ;" 
"Jump the fence," or "Jump over the fence ;" " Ride a horse," or " Ride on a horse ;" 
"Nothing can compensate the loss of reputation," or " Nothing can compensate for 
the loss of reputation." 

9. The verb graduate is now used sometimes as transitive and sometimes as 
intransitive; as, "He was graduated last year;" "He graduated last year." The 
transitive sense is to be preferred. The intransitive sense is not mentioned in 
Johnson's Dictionary. 

10. Locate is sometimes improperly used as intransitive ; as, " He has located in 
Cincinnati." 

The transitive verb leave is often used in an intransitive sense ; as, " When do 
you expect to leave?" Leave is not used in this sense by writers of the highest 
class, and this intransitive sense is not mentioned in the dictionaries. There is no 
necessity for using leave in this sense ; for we have start, set out, go, take leave, etc. 

11. Some verbs may have two objectives, one denoting the object on which the 
action is exerted, the other denoting what the object is made, in fact or in thought, 
to be; as, "They made him captain;" "They consider him a good man;" "The 
society elected him chairman." 

The second objective is sometimes called the "factitive objective " (from Latin 
facer e, to make). _ 

The verbs used in this way are those that in the passive voice have a predicate- 
nominative ; such as choose, appoint, elect, constitute, render, esteem, consider, reckon, 
name, call. 

After some of these verbs we may suppose an ellipsis of the verb to be; as, " I 
consider him [to be] a good man." 

This construction is not apposition. A noun in apposition with another noun is 
annexed for the sake of explanation or description and may be omitted ; but in this 
construction the second noun is essential. There is a great difference between " He 
called Cicero, the father of his country" and "He called Cicero the father of his 
country ;" the former sentence meaning that he called Cicero, who was the father of 
his country, the latter that he gave to Cicero the appellation of father of his country. 
With the verb changed to the passive voice the former sentence would become, 
"Cicero, the father of his country, was called by him;" the latter would become, 
"Cicero was called the father of his country by him." 

12. Some verbs are followed by two objectives ; one being the direct object of the 
verb, the other generally denoting the person to or for whom something is done; as, 
" He gave me a book;" " Forgive us our debts ;" " She taught him grammar ;" " They 
allowed him a seat;" " It cost him a dollar." 

The Anglo-Saxons had a dative case, expressing by a termination what we 
express by a preposition ; wulf, wolf, for instance, having in the dative ivulfe, to or 
for a wolf. The nouns denoting persons in the preceding examples are probably 
remnants of this dative, and some call a word used in this way the indirect object of 
the verb. But if the order of the words is changed, we must express a preposition ; 
as, " She gave a book to me ;" " Buy a book for her;" and it is as well to suppose 
a preposition implied, in accordance with the genius of modern English. Wycliffe 
has "For^eue to us oure dettes." 



204 SYNTAX. 

13. It is generally only the direct object of a transitive verb in the active voice 
that becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice; but in some cases the 
indirect object, or objective with a preposition implied, has been treated as the direct 
and made the subject of the verb in the passive voice; as, "They allowed him a 
seat," "iiTewas allowed a seat ;" "James gave me a book," "/was given a book by 
James ;" "We forgave him the debt," "He was forgiven the debt." 

This is the common construction with the verbs ask and teach, and it is some- 
times used by good writers with other verbs ; but in general the direct object of the 
verb in the active voice should be made the subject of the verb in the passive. Say, 
"A book was handed to me," not " I was handed a book ;" " The office was promised 
to me," not "I was promised the office." A London correspondent of one of the 
New York journals writes, "As a lady was being shown through the show." This 
makes the lady a part of the show. 

If it is desired to place the indirect object at the beginning of the proposition, 
the form may be changed ; as, " He had a seat allowed him ;" " He had the promise 
of the office." 

14. Some object to such expressions as "You are mistaken," because, they say, 
"You are mistaken" means that you are misunderstood, not that you misunder- 
stand ; and they say the proper form is the active, " You mistake." But mistaken in 
such expressions means taken (led) amiss, led astray. " He was taken out of his way." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the object of each transitive verb: 

They met me in the day of success. I see them on their winding 
way. . A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an enemy his crimes. 
He who tells a lie is not sensible of how great a task he undertakes; 
for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one. Among 
the base merit begets envy; among the noble, emulation. 

[Remark 2.] George desires to learn. James said that he would go. 
Eliza loves to read. I know how you have struggled with misfortune. 
John has discovered whose book that is. You wish that she would stay. 
I prefer working in the garden. 

[Remark 3.] Me he restored to mine office, and him he hanged. 
Thee have I always before my eyes. That man I have never seen 
before. Him who has offended you should punish, not me who am 
innocent. What book did you buy? 

[Remark 4.] "Whom have you seen? The lady whom we loved so 
much has left us. The book that I bought is very interesting. The 
bird that we saw on that tree has flown away. I should like to know 
whom he saw. 

[Remark 5.] Here is the book you wished. That is the man you 
admire so much. I wish to see the passage you mentioned. 

[Remark 6.] Let us run the race that is set before us. He lived 
an unhappy life. Who is willing to die the drunkard's death? Sleep 
the sleep that knows not waking. 

[Remark 8, second paragraph.] Often fineness compensated size. — 
Tennyson. The pleasures of life do not compensate the miseries. — Prior. 



OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. 205 

[Remark 11.] The soldiers proclaimed Otho emperor. The priest 
anointed him king of Israel. Some one calls a blush the color of virtue. 
I consider you my friend. He has appointed me his agent. Make 
God's law the rule of thy life. You have made our home a desolation. 
God created you men, and you have made yourselves beasts. 

[Remark 12.] Forgive us our trespasses. Give us this day our daily 
bread. I give you dominion over the beasts of the field. John showed 
me a beautiful picture. Tell me a tale of the olden time. Heaven send 
you the choicest blessings. 

2. Correct the errors: 

Who did he see? He that is idle and mischievous reprove sharply. 
They that honor me I will honor. Who do you think I saw ? Who 
did he marry? The man who he raised from obscurity betrayed him. 
He who committed the crime you should punish, not I who am inno- 
cent. Leave Nell and I to toil and work. 

[Remark 8, first paragraph.] The stable caught on fire. Resolved, 
That a special committee be appointed to investigate into the truth of 
said rumors. — Resolution adopted by the Legislature of New Jersey. 

[Remark 12.] She was bought a book. He was shown her letter. 
He was promised the privilege. He was told this fact some time ago. 
I was offered the employment. He was offered an opportunity. You 
were paid a high compliment. 

RULE VI. 

The object of a preposition must be in the objective case ; 
as, "He spoke to me." 

Remarks.— 1. Any thing performing the office of a noun may be the object of a 
preposition. (See p. 134.) 

2. About is the only preposition that at present is followed by the infinitive. 
Formerly other prepositions, especially for, were followed, by the infinitive; as, 
"What went ye out for to see?" — English Bible. "These things may serve for to 
represent." — Bacon. "Which for to prevent." — Shakespeare. 

The reason why other prepositions are not followed by the infinitive is that they 
are followed by the gerund, which has the same sense. Spenser's "Each the other 
from to rise restrained "=" Each the other from rising restrained." 

3. "By being ignorant of what greatness is promised thee.'" — Shakespeare. "We 
spoke of why we came." — Tennyson. "The question as to what were the actual first 
utterances."— Prof. Whitney. These are instances of noun-propositions employed for 
nouns in the objective case. 

4. The prepositions after, before, ere, since, till, until sometimes take noun- 
propositions as their objects; as, "He came after you had gone;" "He left us 
before you arrived ;" "Come down ere my child die ;" "I have loved her ever since 
I saw her;" " He will stay till you come;" "He was an industrious boy until he met 
with those idle fellows." 

The prepositions in such constructions are generally regarded as conjunctive 
adverbs ; but they are really prepositions followed by noun-propositions instead of 



206 SYNTAX. 

nouns. " He left us before your arrival ;" " He left us before you arrived." In the 
latter sentence before has precisely the same meaning that it has in the former. The 
use of that after these words is readily explained when they are regarded as prepo- 
sitions. " Before that you arrived." * 

Other prepositions have been followed by noun-propositions ; as, " I '11 charm 
his eyes against she do appear." — Shakespeare. "Urijah made it against King Ahaz 
came from Damascus." — English Bible. "Without you were so simple, none else 
would be." — Shakespeare. Without is not often used in this way by good writers ; but 
there is nothing in the nature of things to condemn such use of it. 

In and for are frequently followed by noun-propositions ; as, "It is human in that 
it is brought about through that nature by human instrumentality." — Prof. Whitney. 
With in the noun-proposition is always introduced by that; for is used either with 
or without that. In the following passage the first noun-proposition is without that, 
the second has that: KJ hate him for he is a Christian> 

But more for that in low simplicity 

He lends out money gratis." — Shakespeare. 

Besides is often used before noun- propositions ; as, " Besides that he is out of 
money, he is not well enough to go." This word is always a preposition. " He is not 
well enough to go ; besides this, he is out of money." Or with this omitted : " He is 
not well enough to go ; besides, he is out of money." 

5. " This is a dangerous opinion for men to entertain. 11 The object of for is the 
infinitive with its subject. " Each man walks with his head in a cloud of poisonous 
flies." — Tennyson. The object of with is not head — he does not walk with his head — 
but the whole expression, his head in a cloud of poisonous flies. " With thee to smile 
upon him he is happy." — Sterne. In this sentence the object of with is thee to smile 
upon him. To smile is an adjunct-infinitive. (See p. 229.) 

6. The object of the preposition is sometimes omitted; as, "This is the man 
[that] I spoke to ;" " Not the form of government [which] he lives under, but the 
church [which] he is a member of." — Carlyle. The object is omitted when it is the 
antecedent to a compound relative pronoun or to the relative pronoun what; as, " I 
will give it to [the person] whoever desires it;" "He devotes himself heartily to 
[the thing] whatever interests him ;" "I furnished him with [the thing or the things] 
what he desired." 

The object is often omitted in certain idiomatic constructions ; as, " He is not fit 
[for men] to converse with [him] ;" "I had no need of any light [which] to read my 
guardian's letter by " (or "to read my guardian's letter by [it] ") ; " He has no home 
to go to "ass" to which he can go ;" " He had no pillow to lay his head on "=" on 
which to lay his head ;" " Virtue is worth dying for [it]." 

7. The preposition is sometimes omitted; as, " 'Hers are we;' [with] one voice 
we cried."— Tennyson. " She rose [to] her height."— Id. 

In such expressions as "despite Duke Humphrey" a preposition is omitted 
before despite and one after it. Generally the prepositions are expressed ; as, " In 
despite of his quick wit."— Shakespeare. "Seized my hand in despite of my efforts 
to the contrary."— Irving. " He will go instead of me." Instead consists of the noun 
stead and the preposition in, written together without any good reason. " They 
excused him because of (by cause of) his illness." Because consists of the prepo- 
sition be, an old form of by, and the noun cause. " He sits astride of the fence." 
Astride consists of the preposition a and the noun stride, and it should always be 
followed by of. (See Remark 2, p. 135.) 

*Bopp (Conjugations-system, p. 82) calls that (German dass) "the article of the 
verb." It would be more correct to call it the article of the noun-proposition; for it 
does not refer to the verb simply, but to the whole proposition regarded as a unit. 



OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. 207 

8. The preposition is often improperly omitted; as, "It is [of] no use to try;" 
"He was not worthy [of ] such honor;" "He was unworthy [of ] the office;" "We 
banish you [from] our territories ;" " The mound [on] the left hand [of] the town ;" 
"At either end [of] the mast;" " It was [of] the size of my hand;" "On this side 
[of] the river;" " He could not refrain [from] expressing himself severely ;" " He 
was prevented [from] speaking to her." 

9. The preposition is always omitted when the relative that is used in such 
expressions as "About the time that his favorite prince left the crown of Poland." — 
Addison. (See Remark 2, p. 171.) 

10. Home and nouns denoting time, space, degree, amount, direction, are put in 
the objective without a preposition ; as, " He went home;" " I was there five years;" 
" He was forty miles from home that day ;" " The pole is ten feet too long ;" " This 
is a great deal better than that ;" "A flaming sword which turned every way;" " The 
country was not a cent richer ;" " He was several times defeated." 

In each of these sentences a preposition is implied ; for what is expressed in 
other languages by cases is expressed in modern English by prepositions; and 
though the preposition is not expressed, there is an idea of it in the mind. In 
went home there is something implied besides going and home. " He went to his 
home ;" "I was there for five years ;" " The pole is too long by ten feet ;" " This is 
better than that by a great deal ;" "A flaming sword which turned in every direction ;" 
" The country is not richer by a cent ;" "He was defeated at several times ;" "He 
was at (a distance of) forty miles from home on that day." 

The preposition is frequently omitted before a noun followed by an adjunct, 
especially when this noun is the same as the noun of the adjunct; as, "They walk 
[with] hand in hand;" "[For] day after day we stuck;" "Some, [with] orb in orb, 
around their queen extend ;" " [At] time after time I warned him ;" "He does the 
same thing [on] one day after another ;" " He rushed down the hill [with] heels over 
head;" "He approached the lady [with] hat in hand." * 

11. The objective is used without a preposition after the adjective worth, and 
sometimes after like, unlike, near, next, and nigh; as, "This hat is worth (equal in 
value) [to] five dollars ;" " He is like [to] his father ;" " He sat near [to] me ;" " He 
sat next [to] his grandfather;" "They are nigh [to] the city." The preposition is 
seldom omitted after next, not very frequently after nigh, more frequently after 
near, f 

The preposition is sometimes omitted in one part of a sentence and expressed 
in another; as, "No more like my father than I to Hercules." — Shakespeare. 

12. The preposition is sometimes placed after the objective; as, "Come, walk 
with me the jungle through." — Heber. 

In familiar language the preposition is often placed after a relative or an inter- 
rogative pronoun ; as, " Whom did you speak to ?" = " To whom did you speak?" 
The preposition is always placed after the relative that; as, " This is the man that 
he spoke to." 

s:: In such expressions as "They tore him limb from limb" it is the verb tore 
that affects the construction — they tore him, they tore limb from limb. Compare 
"They tore them one from the other." 

f These words, or most of them, when not followed by prepositions expressed 
are regarded by some as themselves prepositions ; the class of prepositions being 
looked upon by them as, like Autolycus, " a snapper-up of unconsidered trifles," or 
perhaps as a kind of grammatical waste-basket into which they may throw any thing 
which they do not know what else to do with. Some of their " prepositions " may 
be compared; as, "Nearest his heart."— Shakespeare. "And earthly power doth then 
show likest God's."— Id. 



208 SYNTAX. 

13. " The sap will run as long as it freezes nights." — Rev. E. Kellogg. "Perhaps 
you '11 like to come here days, with me, and read and sew." — Mrs. Harriet B. Stowe. 
"Where the sun afternoons used to steal." — Eclectic Fifth Reader. This use of the 
noun without a preposition to denote the time of a repeated action is a disagreeable 
provincial vulgarism. The proper form is the singular with a preposition ; as, " The 
sap will run as long as it freezes at night, or in the night, or by night;''' " Where the 
sun after noon used to steal." "On a Sunday or in an evening after the hours of busi- 
ness some courts and alleys, which a few hours before had been alive with hurrying 
feet and anxious faces, are as silent as a country churchyard." — Macaulay. "By 
night full often hath she gossiped by my side."— Shakespeare. " He plies the duke at 
morning and at night." — Id. " 'T is a custom with him V (in) the afternoon to sleep." — 
Id. Shakespeare sometimes uses the preposition o' (on or of) with the plural ; as, 
"Antony that revels long o' nights." 

14. Avoid the use of such vulgar expressions as " Where is my book at?" The 
answer corresponding to this would be " It is at here," " It is at there," or " It is at 
on the table." 

When where is used for whither (to what place), as in "Where are you going?" 
the preposition to should not be used with it, as in " Where are you going to?" 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the objects of the prepositions: 

John rode on the horse. George is obedient to his parents. The 
book lies before him on the table. You will gain happiness by a life 
of virtue. By close attention to study he became learned. By diligent 
industry he became rich. 

The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrub the jay [calls], 
And from the wood-top calls the crow, through all the gloomy day. 

[Remark 1.] Thomas is employed in cutting wood. The bars did 
not prevent the prisoner from escaping. By so doing he gained the 
friendship of his former enemy. 

[Remark 2.] The country is about to be ruined. The time was 
about to expire when the man entered. You are about to enter a new 
field of labor. 

[Remark 3.] He did not decide the question as to who is the 
owner. The result will depend on who is the leader. As to what is 
the usual course in such matters I can give no opinion. 

[Remark 4.] He went away before you came. Be patient till we 
have appeased the multitude. Pause a day or two before you hazard. 
You never saw her since she was deformed. The maiden perished ere 
he came. Besides that it is raining, he could not find the way in such 
a night as this. • That this drama has merit is shown in that it has kept 
its place on the boards. 

[Remark 5.] This is a dangerous step for you to take. He walks 
with his hands in his pockets. 

[Remark 6.] This is the man I gave it to. This paper belongs to 
whoever owns the book. It will be delivered to whoever establishes 



OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. 209 

his claim. He is ready to give assistance to whoever gives assistance to 
him. I am pleased with what he has done. He is pleased with whatever 
is done to please him. How many people are busy in this world in 
gathering together a handful of thorns to sit upon! — Jeremy Taylor. 

[Remark 7.] He was rejected because of his impertinence. He 
shall read it instead of you. The monkey is sitting astride of the dog. 
Some future time, if so indeed you will, 
You may with those self-styled our lords ally 
Your fortunes. — Tennyson. 

[Remark 10.] He went home. He walked five miles. Two days, 
as many nights he slept. His spear was sixteen feet long. He is a 
great deal worse. The painter flattered her a little. I will not be a 
step behind. The cheapest of us ten groats too dear. — Shakespeare. 
I would not care a pin if the other three were in. — Id. It does not 
matter one marble splinter. — Ruskin. 

[Remark 11.] The knife is not worth fifty cents. The good man 
is now near the time of his departure. This book is w T orth its weight 
in gold. Soldiers in peace are like chimneys in summer. 

[Remark 12.] It is known all the world over. Whom did you give 
the letter to? From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, leaps 
the live thunder. — Byron. They sat in silent watchfulness the sacred 
cypress-tree about. — Whittier. 

2. Correct the errors: 

She spoke to he and I. She spoke to him and I. To who did you 
speak? Who did you speak to? It was divided between he and I. 
It was divided between him and I. Between you and I, he is not 
honest. From he that is needy turn not away. It is addressed to you 
and I. She 'd make two of she. 

[Remark 8.] What use is it to try? He is not worthy your pro- 
tection. He lives on this side the mountains? It was the size of a 
piece of chalk. He was prevented crossing the stream. The Jews 
were banished Rome. The tree was three feet diameter. It was nine 
feet circumference. 

[Remark 13.] He plies the duke mornings and nights. He walks 
evenings and rides mornings. The proposed journey to a new world 
kept me awake nights. — Our Young Folks. Mab that plats the manes 
of horses nights. Sleeping within mine orchard, my custom always 
afternoons. This thy creature frequents my house nights. He sleeps 
days more than the wild-cat. 

[Remark 14.] Where is my hat at? It is at here. Where is the 
rat at? There it is at. Where are my books and slate and cap at? 
Do you ask where they are at ? They are at on that table. 

18 



210 SYNTAX, 



RULE VII. 

A noun annexed to another noun for the sake of explanation 
or emphasis must be in the same case ; as, ' ' This book belongs 
to Charles Thomson, him who was with me yesterday." 

Remarks. — I. The noun annexed is said to be in apposition with the other.* 
The word apposition is derived from the Latin appositus, put to ; the noun in apposi- 
tion is put to the other. 

2. The noun annexed must be in the same part of the sentence, subject or 
predicate, with the other noun. 

3. This construction must not be confounded with that of the predicate-nominative 
(Rule II), or with that of the "factitive objective" (Rule V, Remark 11). A noun 
in apposition is put in the same part of the sentence with the other noun for the 
purpose of explanation, description, or emphasis ; the predicate-nominative is not 
annexed to the subject, but is put in that part of the sentence by which something 
is affirmed. There may be a predicate-nominative without a subject. (See Rule II, 
Remark 3.) The factitive objective is not employed for the purpose of explanation, 
but to complete the idea begun by the verb. " The robbers made Valentine captain ;" 
that is, they made captain Valentine, or to coin a word for the purpose of illustration, 
they captainized Valentine. It is easy to see that the objective captain is more closely 
connected with the verb made than with the noun Valentine; as if the verb and the 
factitive objective were united to express the idea and the other objective made the 
object of this compound expression. 

4. A noun is sometimes repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, "Company, 
villainous company, hath been the spoil of me."— Shakespeare. "I saw him before 
me, him who had desolated my peaceful home, him who had destroyed my hap- 
piness." 

Some have asserted that this construction is not apposition ; but as the noun is 
repeated for the sake of emphasis and the word as repeated must be in the same 
case with the word as first used, this is apposition. Compare " I saw him before 
me, the desolater of my peaceful home, the destroyer of my happiness." 

5. A proposition may be in apposition with a noun ; as, " This truth once known, 
to bless is to be blessed." 

6. A noun may be in apposition with a proposition ; as, "lie recovered, a result 
that was not expected." Sometimes the noun refers to a part only of the preceding 
proposition; as, " He succeeded in dispelling their doubts, an object he had long kept 
steadily in view." In some cases at least it would be better to regard the noun as 
predicate-nominative after some form of the verb be. " He succeeded in dispelling 
their doubts, [which was] an object he had long kept steadily in view." 

7. A plural noun is sometimes put in apposition with two or more nouns pre- 
ceding it; as, " You and / and honest Casca, we have the falling sickness."— Shake- 
speare. " The study of the ancient writers, the rapid development of the powers of 
the modern languages, the unprecedented activity which was displayed in every 
department of literature, the political state of Europe, all these things gave to the 
teachers of the new theology an advantage."— Macaulay. "Patriotism, justice, gener- 
osity, all [these things'] concurred." 

-'•Some say "in apposition to," regarding the derivation of the word apposition; 
but the derivation does not always show what preposition is to be employed after a 
particular word ; averse, for instance, signifies turned from, and yet we say averse to. 
A noun in apposition with another noun has a grammatical connection with it. 



NOUN IN APPOSITION. 211 

8. "The men went each [man] his own way;" "The men went out one [man] 
after another." Such constructions have been regarded by some as cases of appo- 
sition; but the noun understood is really the subject of a verb; as, "The men 
went, each [man went] his own way;" "The men went out, one [man went out] 
after another." 

9. The noun in apposition is sometimes placed before the other; as, 

"A wandering harper, scorned and poor, 
He begged his bread from door to door." — Scott. 

10. The proper name of an object may be put in apposition with the common 
noun denoting the class ; as, "The poet Thomson ;" that is, the poet who is distin- 
guished from other poets by the name Thomson. Or the common noun may be put 
in apposition with the proper name ; as, " Thomson, the poet ;" that is, the Thomson 
who is distinguished from other Thomsons by being a poet. 

11. The proper names of rivers are generally placed after the common noun 
river; as, "The river Thames;" that is, the river distinguished from other rivers 
by the name Thames. But in the United States the proper name is commonly placed 
first when rivers in the United States are spoken of; as, "The Mississippi River, the 
Ohio River, the Hudson River, the Alabama River," as if the proper name were an 
adjective ; or perhaps the two words are regarded as one proper name, river in this 
form generally beginning with a capital letter. The same persons, however, that say 
"the Ohio River, the Mississippi River," place river before the names of rivers of 
other countries ; as, " The river St. Lawrence, the river Amazon, the river Rhine, 
the river Danube, the river Jordan." 

In " White River, Blue River, Red River, Black River, Salt River, Duck River," 
etc., the words White, Blue, etc., are adjectives denoting the color of the water or 
some other characteristic, and it may be that the existence of so many rivers in the 
United States with names of this kind has led to the placing of other distinctive 
names before the word river. 

12. The proper names of places and months, instead of being put in apposition 
with the common nouns coming before them, are generally joined to these nouns by 
the preposition of; as, " The city of Nashville, the county of Jefferson, the state of 
Alabama." Sometimes the proper name is placed first, and the whole is taken as 
one name ; as, "Jefferson County." In Ireland the proper name of the county is put 
in apposition with county; as, " County Cork." In England the word shire is united 
with the proper name so as to form a compound word ; as, " Yorkshire, Devonshire, 
Worcestershire." 

13. In designating a person we take the Christian (baptismal, given) name and 
the surname as one name ; as, "John Smith." * 

14. One possessive termination answers for more than one noun when the nouns 
in apposition are closely connected with the other nouns ; as, "John the Baptist's 
head." 

* Originally each person had but one name, the name given to him in childhood; 
but as it would happen that many persons would have the same name, John for 
instance, it would be found necessary to employ some terms to distinguish the 
different Johns from one another. One, being a smith, would be called John the 
smith (John Smith) ; another, being the son of Richard, would be called John 
Richard's son (John Richardson) ; another, being of very tall (or perhaps of very 
low) stature, would be called John the long fellow (John Longfellow.) In such use 
of the words smith, son, and fellow are in apposition with the noun John. In other 
instances adjectives would be used ; as, Black John (John Black), etc. But when it 
has become fixed in the family the surname is part of the name of the person. 



212 SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the nouns in apposition: 

Keligion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. Have you 
read the life of the poet Thomson? See the beautiful flowers, the 
attendants of spring. 

And in thy right hand lead with thee 

The mountain nymph, sweet Liberty. — Milton. 

The harp, his sole remaining joy, 

"Was carried by an orphan boy. — Scott 

O Music, sphere-descended maid, 

Friend of Pleasure, Wisdom's aid. — Collins. 
On the Grampian hills 

My father feeds his flock; a frugal swain, 

Whose only care was to increase his store 

And keep his only son, myself, at home. — Home. 

The moonshine, stealing o'er the scene, 

Had blended with the lights of eve; 

And she was there, my hope, my joy, 

My own dear Genevieve. — Coleridge. 

[Eemark 4.] They had in reserve a check which soon brought the 
fiercest and proudest king to reason, the check of physical force. — 
Macaulay. He pledges the dignity of his crown, that crown which 
had been committed to him for the weal of his people. — Id. 
They are the lovely, they in whom unite 
Youth's fleeting charms with virtue's lovely light. 
[Kemark 5.] The fact that he was present shows that he is guilty. 
Bulwer denies that Bacon is the author of the saying, "Knowledge 
is power." 

[Remark 7.] Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, 
patriots, all parties concurred. — Hume. 

[Rem. 9.] Poor wanderers of a stormy day, 

Prom wave to wave we 're driven. — Moore. 

2. Correct the errors : 

You think me mad, I who am only useless and idle. Will you act 
thus toward me, I who have so often assisted you? I saw him before 
me, he who had since our first meeting continually contrived to pass 
some inappreciable slight upon me. — Lever. He is next in succession 
to the Earl of Berkeley, he who has not claimed the title. — R. Shelton 
Mackenzie. Had he really passed and left her, she who had done so 
much for him? — Mrs. Oliphant. 



ADJECTIVES. 213 

KULE VIII. 
Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or understood. 

Remarks.— 1. This rule includes participles, which are verbal adjectives. 

2. The adjective may be joined with the noun in the same part of the propo- 
sition, subject or predicate, in which case the quality is assumed to belong to the 
object; as, "That happy boy has gained a prize." Or it may be in the predicate, 
serving to complete the idea begun to be expressed by the verb, and thus modifying 
the verb to the grammatical subject of which it belongs ; as, "That boy is happy;" 
"That boy feels happy;" "That boy has been made happy." In this case the 
quality is asserted to belong to the object. 

3. An adjective may belong to any thing employed as a noun; an infinitive, 
a gerund, or a noun-proposition; as, "To return is impossible;" "Returning would 
be tedious ;" "That any one should do so is surprising." 

4. The adjective in connection with the infinitive or the gerund is sometimes 
used without reference to any particular object, to denote an abstract idea; as, "To 
be good is to be happy;" " Virtue consists in being good, not in appearing good," Such 
expressions have an indefinite reference to any or all objects that are capable of 
existing in the states mentioned. 

5. " In mountain scenery the sublime prevails over the beautiful" In such expres- 
sions the adjective is used in the sense of an abstract noun. There is a reference to 
some very general idea, like that expressed by quality, characteristic, or some term 
more general still. 

6. The noun is often omitted ; as, " The wicked [persons] persecute the good 
[persons] ;" "Some [books] of these books are worthless ;" "Judas was one of the 
twelve [apostles];" "Each [person] has his faults;" "He takes it for [a] granted 
[thing] ;" " He gave it up for [a] lost [thing] ;" " Make [yourself] sure of victory ;" 
"He made [a] light [matter] of the whole thing ;" "This plant is one* [plant] that 
grows rapidly ;" " His end was that* [end] of a good man." {See p. 67, fourth para- 
graph.) "And, [which is] contrary to the king, his crown, and dignity, thou hast 
built a paper-mill."— Shakespeare. 

It is not correct to say that the adjective in such expressions as " The wise are 
not thus deceived" is used as a noun. The adjective is still an adjective and may 
be modified by adverbs ; as, " The truly wise are not thus deceived ;" " The madly 
brave are fools." 

7. Participles sometimes belong to some general word which is omitted; as, 
" [We, men, people] granting this to be true, what is the inference ?" {See Rule III, 
Remark 2, p. 194.) 

8. The adjective is generally placed before the noun; but there are some adjec- 
tives whose proper place is after the noun ; as, " Pride alone urges him on." The 
adjective enough should never be placed before the noun ; say "money enough," not 
" enough money." 

9. An adjective modified by an adjunct, an infinitive, or a proposition is placed 
after the noun ; "A woman devoted to fashion ;" "A man worthy to be admired ;" "A 
person conscious that he is in fault." 

10. The adjective sometimes denotes what the object is made to be, in fact or in 
thought, by the action expressed by the verb, and then the adjective is placed after 
the noun ; as, " This made the land fertile;" " She boiled the egg hard;" " He calls 
that man happy." The adjective thus employed is sometimes called the " factitive 

"One and that are forms used only when the nouns are omitted ; when the nouns 
are expressed a and the must be used. 



214 SYNTAX. 

adjective." (Compare "factitive objective." Rule V, Rem. 11, p. 203.) If the active 
form is changed to the passive, the adjective becomes a predicate-adjective; as, 
"The land was made fertile;'" "The egg was boiled hard." 

11. In such names as "Henry the First," "Alfred the Great," "Charles the Bold," 
" Ethelred the Unready," the adjective part of the name is placed after the noun. 
In these names the adjective may be considered as belonging to the preceding noun, 
and the adjective is sometimes placed before the noun, like an ordinary adjective ; 
as, " The third Edward."— Shakespeare. " The first Henry."— Hume. " The fourth 
Edward." — Waller. But sometimes the construction implies that the adjective 
belongs to a noun in apposition with the preceding noun; as, " Henry of that name 
the sixth [king]." — Shakespeare. 

12. Adjectives should not be so arranged as to destroy or obscure the meaning. 
"Cut off from the means of return, the sultan issued a declaration of war against 
Napoleon." — Appleton's Encyclopedia. It was Napoleon that was cut off, but the 
construction represents the sultan as the person that was cut off. "It is virtue 
which alone ennobles man." The writer meant to say that it is virtue alone that 
ennobles man. 

13. When a limiting and a qualifying adjective belong to the same noun the 
limiting adjective is generally placed before the qualifying adjective ; as, " The seven 
wise men," "These great men," " These two excellent managers," "The three foremost 
men of the time," "The two greatest men of the day," "The two best books," "The seven 
uppermost ribs," "The two first and the three last stanzas." 

The reason for this order is that the qualifying adjective and the noun express 
one complex idea, and the limiting adjective belongs to the complex expression, 
not to the noun merely. " The seven wise men "=" The seven sages." * 

* Some persons say " the first two," contending that there can be but one first, 
though they themselves constantly use such expressions as " the first hours of the 
day," " his first efforts" "the first years of his life." It is true that in numbering, the 
first being followed by the second, there can be but one first ; but first 'in the ordi- 
nary use of the word means merely " before all others of the same kind," and there 
may be several before all the others. Sallust says that Jugurtha was the first or 
among the first to strike the lion and other wild beasts ; that is, he was before all 
the others or among those that were before all the others. "These ten soldiers 
were among the first to enter the city." Besides the ten soldiers there were several 
others that were first. Similar remarks may be made about last, next, and other 
superlatives. The correct arrangement is shown in the following passages : " The 
two first and the four last."— Scott. "The two first verses."— Id "The three first 
monarchies of the world."— Raleigh. "The two first Georges."— Jeffrey. "The seven 
first centuries." — Gibbon. " The three first years of his reign." — Id. " The three first 
stanzas."— Addison. " The twelve last are to my purpose."— Id. " The four first acts 
already passed."— Bishop Berkeley. " The four first acts."— Sheridan. " These two 
last groups." — Prof. Whitney. " The two first requisitions." — Thomas Hughes. " The 
two last sentences."— Fitzedward Hall. "The two first parliaments of William."— 
Macaulay. " Her six first French kings." — Id. " The five last scenes." — Moore. " The 
two first sheets of his poem." — Sydney Smith. " The two first letters of the Gothic 
aya." — Bopp. The two first persons of the Greek dual." — Id. "The three first days 
of their sitting." — Swift. "The two last housekeepers." — Thackeray. "The three 
first acts of his Hamlet." — Dickens. " The four greatest names in English poetry are 
almost the four first we come to." — Hazlitt. " The two first years." — Chas. Kingsley. 
" The four first." —Hood. " The two first ." —Izaak Walton. " The five first lines of the 
Iliad." — Fielding. " The two last may enter Carleton or any other house, and the two 
first are limited to the opera." — Byron. " The three first generations." — E.Everett. 
" The two next lines in that ode." — Johnson. " Procure a transcript of the ten or 



ADJECTIVES. 215 

" The first two " is correct only when we speak of a number of objects arranged 
in twos, so that after the first two we have a second two, etc. 

If so, as, too, how, or however precedes, the limiting adjective an (a) is placed 
after the qualifying adjective; as, "So great a wonder," "As wise a man," "Too 
heavy a burden," " How wonderful an achievement," " However glorious a day." 

14. The comparative degree presents the objects compared as being in different 
classes or divisions and is followed by than; as, "The whale is larger than the 
elephant." The whale is not an elephant. 

The superlative degree presents the objects compared as being in the same class 
or division and is followed by of; as, " The whale is the largest of animals." The 
whale is an animal. 

It would not be correct to say, "Solomon was wiser than any of the Hebrew 
kings," because Solomon was one of the Hebrew kings. Nor would it be correct to 
say, "Solomon was the wisest of the Roman kings," because Solomon was not one 
of the Roman kings. It would not be correct to say that Eve was the fairest of her 
daughters, because that would represent her as one of her own daughters. Nor 
would it be correct to say that Eve was fairer than any woman, because that would 
be equivalent to saying that she was not a woman.*-" 

But we may say, " Eve was fairer than any of her daughters," because Eve and 
her daughters are thus placed in two different divisions. We may say, " Eve was 
the fairest of women," because Eve is thus placed in the class of women. Or we 
may say, " Eve was fairer than any other woman," the word other serving to create 
two divisions. Eve was not one of the other women. 

twenty first lines." — Id. " The two first days." — Irving. " The two first years." — 
Bancroft. "The four first centuries." — Prescott. "The three first of his longer 
poems." — Southey. 

[ " Forma (first) and other (second, other) are sometimes used in the plural 
describing a class, and are then arranged as descriptives [qualifying adjectives 
following limiting adjectives]: tha threo forman gebedu, the three first prayers; 
twegen othre manfulle, two other malefactors. So in other languages : hepta tas 
eschatas, Lat. septem novissimas, the seven last (plagues) (English Bible, Rev. xv, 1; 
xxi, 9) ; I read to Albert the three first cantos of the Lay of the Last Minstrel (Queen 
Victoria, Life in the Highlands, p. 46) ; our two eldest children (Same, 76, 234) ; two 
other keepers (Same, 70) ; in den sechs ersten Conjugationen, in the six first conjugations 
(J. Grimm, D. G., I, 1038) ; les onze premiers chapitres, the eleven first chapters (Renan, 
Hist. Sem. Lang., I, 27) ; las dos primeras partes, the two first parts (Don Carlos, quoted 
in Motley, R. D. R., Ill, 193) ; las cuatro primeras, the four first (Don Quixote, 352) ; 
i dieciprimi libri, the ten first books (Diez, 3, 436)." — March's Anglo-Saxon Gram., 218.] 

* " Yet Milton writes, 

Adam the goodliest man of men since born 
His sons ; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. 

Adam was not one of his own sons, nor one ' of men since born.' Eve was not one 
of her own daughters. The phrase may be admired, but is scarcely to be imitated. 
Milton, however, should not be censured for catching a grace beyond the reach of 
rules."— Holmes's English Grammar, p. 104. 

Milton, instead of employing pure idiomatic English to express his idea, chose 
to imitate a form he had met with in Greek, and thus with his Greek he made simply 
an English bull. "Little Dominic, have you any brothers ?" "No; I wish I had, 
for perhaps they would be kind to me ; but I have no brothers but myself." Little 
Dominic had caught "a grace beyond the reach of rules ;" but the poor little fellow 
had no grammarian to tell him what he had done. 



216 SYNTAX. 

"Montesquieu enjoys, perhaps, a wider celebrity than any political writer of 
modern Europe." — Macaulay. Montesquieu being one of the political writers of 
modern Europe, the adjective other should have been employed— " than any other 
political writer of modern Europe." 

" The appearance of Mr. Crummies was more striking than that of any member 
of his party."— Dickens. Was Mr. Crummies a member of the party ? If so, other 
should have followed any. "A fondness for show is of all other follies the most 
vain." Here other is incorrectly used. 

Sometimes the separation may be indicated by other words. " This work com- 
manded much more attention, as a pronouncing dictionary, than any other of the 
kind that preceded it."— Worcester. " This work" could not be one of "those that 
preceded it," and other is incorrectly used. 

15. When two objects of the same class or division are compared the comparative 
is used like the superlative, being followed by of; as, " He is the taller of the two 
brothers." 

This being a violation of the principle that the comparative presents the objects 
compared in different classes or divisions, the superlative is often, when two objects 
of the same class are compared, used in the same way in which it is used when more 
than two objects are compared; as, "The strangest of the two."— Hawthorne. "The 
most agreeable of the two."— Cowper. " The least qualified candidate of the two." — 
Dickens. " Which of these two causes was most active."— G. P. Marsh. " The most 
lifelike of the two."— Merivale. "Of the two elements of a compound sentence 
which is the most important?" — Latham. "She asked him whether his queen or 
she had the finest hair ; she even inquired which of them he esteemed the finest 
person." — Hume. "The most fatigued of the two." — Hood. "The least serious of 
the two." — Wilkie Collins. " The least of two evils." — Southey. " Whether his cabinet 
or that of Mynheer Sloane at London was the most valuable." — Smollett. "Of these 
two forms we should adopt that which will render the sentence the most perspicuous 
and agreeable." — Goold Brown. " The services of the lawyer are the most expensive 
and the least useful of the two." — Scott. "We say to ride a horse and to ride on a 
horse. The first is, we believe, the most usual construction."— Mulligan. " The eldest 
of his two sons." — Thackeray. "The auditory of Mr. Travers was far the most 
numerous [compared with that of Hooker]."— Fuller. " Of two usances the mer- 
riest was put down." — Shakespeare. 

"Wherever God erects a house of prayer, 
The devil always builds a chapel there; 
And 't will be found, upon examination, 
The latter has the largest congregation." — Defoe. i:t 

16. Double comparatives and superlatives, such as more wiser, most wisest, for- 
merly common, are now avoided. But lesser is used by good writers; as, "The 
Lesser Asia." 

17. Each, every, either, and neither require verbs and nouns (including pronouns) 
connected with them to be of the third person singular ; " Neither [boy] of them is 

*The two forms are sometimes used indiscriminately in the same passage; as, 
" Hamish, the elder of these youths, was the tallest by a head."— Scott. " Which was 
the greatest innovator, which was the more important personage in man's history, he 
who first led armies over the Alps and gained the victories of Cannae and Thrasymene 
or the nameless boor who first hammered out for himself an iron spade?"— Carlyle. 
" Between two hawks, which flies the higher pitch ; 

Between two dogs, \vhich hath the deeper mouth; 

Between two blades, which bears the better temper ; 

Between two horses, which doth bear him best; 

Between two girls, which hath the merriest eye."— Shakespeare. 



ADJECTIVES. 217 

a bad boy;" " Each [boy] has studied his lesson ;" " Either [person] of you is com- 
petent ;" "Neither [person] of us was out of his seat." 

So even when two or more objects are mentioned; as, "Each book and each 
paper is kept in the place assigned to that book and that paper;"" "Every book and 
paper is kept in the place assigned to it" 

Such expressions as " every three weeks " are correct, because the whole time is 
taken as one thing. 

No joined to two or more singular nouns requires verbs and nouns to be singular; 
as, "No book and no paper is out of its place." 

The following passages are incorrect : " Each person drawing in their breath 
hard."— Scott. Their should be his. " Each knew the situation of their own bosom, 
and could not but guess at that of the other." — Scott. A man and a woman being 
referred to in the passage, his can not be used instead of their. The passage may be 
thus corrected : " Both knew the situation of their own bosoms, and each could not 
but guess at the situation of the other." 

18. By some it is asserted that the expression each other refers to two objects 
only and one another to more than two. But there is no good authority for these 
restrictions ; each other and one another are applied either to two or to more. Johnson 
says, " To each the correspondent is other, whether it be used of two or of a greater 
number." Webster says of each, " Denoting one of the two or more individuals 
composing the whole, considered separately from the rest. To each corresponds 
other." "Two buckets filling one another"— Shakespeare. "Your brother and my 
sister no sooner sighed but they asked one another the reason." — Id. In each of 
these passages one another is applied to two. Worcester says of one another, " Two 
persons or things taken reciprocally." In the implied restriction he is not correct. 
"A new commandment I give unto you, that ye love one another." — English Bible. 
" The big round tears coursed one another down his innocent nose." — Shakespeare. 
Each other is applied to more than two in the following passages : " The cannibals 
that each other eat." — Shakespeare. " The sonnes and the daughters shall rebel 
ayenst father and mother, and kinred ayenst kinred, and chiden and despisen eche 
other."— Chaucer. "The thieves (Falstaff and his companions) are scattered and 
possessed with fear so strongly that they dare not meet each other." — Shakespeare. 

19. This and that belong to singular nouns ; these and those to plural nouns ; as, 
" This apple, these apples; that kind, those kinds." 

20. When this (plur. these) and that (plur. those) refer to objects previously men- 
tioned this refers to the last-mentioned, as being nearer than the other ; as, " Virtue 
and vice are direct opposites ; that ennobles the mind, this debases it." 

"Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! 
My peace with these, my love with those."- — Burns. 

21. Avoid such vulgarisms as "this here book," "that there hat," "them books," 
"them there hats." 

22. When two or more objects are to be distinguished from each other by 
emphasis or otherwise the adjective expressing a quality or limitation common 
to them must be repeated; as, "To make a distinction between a man and a 
beast;" "The figurative and the literal sense are jumbled together;" "Both the 
man and the woman were acquitted;" " Neither the man nor Me woman was found 
guilty ;" " Either the father or the son must suffer." 

This principle is violated in the following passages : "With this simple talk the 
old and young gentleman beguiled their way."— Thackeray. "Case is either the form 
or position of a noun."— Hiley's English Grammar. "The law is equal between the 
prosecutor and defendant."— Judge Bullar. "It embraces a portion both of the past 
and future."— Pinneo's English Grammar. "The Eclogues of Virgil and Odes of 
Horace."— Scott. "The difference between the adjective and adverb."— Mulligan. 
" Charlie also bought a coarse and fine saw."— Rev. E. Kellogg. 

19 



218 SYNTAX. 

23. An adjective with its noun is sometimes improperly used for a compound 
noun; as, "Musical printer" instead of "music-printer," " photographical album" 
instead of " photograph-album." One may be a music-printer who is not musical in 
any sense ; a photograph -album is an album for containing photographs, and it is not 
at all photographical. 

24. The preposition of is sometimes improperly inserted between all and its 
noun or between both and its noun ; as, "All of his men were taken prisoners ;" 
" Both of the apples were ripe." Say " all his men," " both the apples." 

Of is used between all or both and a pronoun ; as, "All of them were taken 
prisoners;" "Both of them were taken prisoners." Better, "They were all taken 
prisoners;" "They were both taken prisoners." 

25. "Number one," "number two," etc., are correct expressions, because one, two, 
etc., are spoken of merely as numbers; but "part one," "book two," "hymn fifty" 
are modern absurdities. "Canto first."— W ordsworth. "Act second."— Goldsmith. 
" Flight first."— Carlyle. " Book the second."— Dickens. " Canto fourth."— Scott. 

26. When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun the article is placed 
before the first only ; as, " He is a good and great man." But for the sake of em- 
phasis the article may be repeated, if no ambiguity is caused by the repetition ; as, 

"A sadder and a wiser man 
He rose the morrow morn."— Coleridge. 

27. Generally the repetition of the article indicates that the adjectives belong to 
different nouns, all but the last being understood ; as, " He has a white and a black 
horse " (a white horse and a black horse). By " a white and black horse " is meant 
but one horse. 

Instead of repeating the article we may in some instances put the noun in the 
plural ; as, "The north and south poles," "the Old and New Testaments." There is 
no ambiguity here, for we know that there are only two poles and two Testaments; 
but "the black and white horses" may mean several horses, and the expression is 
not equivalent to " the black and the w r hite horse." 

We may say " the north and the south pole " or the " the north and south poles" 
but not " the north and south pole " nor " the north and the south poles." It is cor- 
rect to say " the first and second editions of the work," because the two editions are 
taken together; but it is incorrect to say "the first or second editions," because one 
or the other edition is meant, and not both. 

With other limiting words there is the same principle of arrangement. "On 
that day he made his first and last will " (one will). " I compared his first and his 
last will " or "his first and last wills" (more than one). 

Similar to "the north and south poles" are such expressions as "Walnut and 
Chestnut streets." 

28. Before such complimentary epithets as honorable and reverend and the abbre- 
viations of them the should be expressed ; as, "A speech was made by the Hon. John 
Smith ;" not " by Hon. John Smith." 

29. A title mentioned merely as a title or a word mentioned merely as a word 
should not have an (a) before it ; as, " He claimed the title of duke;''' " He was fond 
of using the word individual for person." 

30. When two nouns are used \i\ comparing two qualities in the same object 
an (a) should not be placed before the second noun; as, "He is a better poet than 
historian" (better in poetry than in history). 

31. A word connected with a word as another name, for the object should not 
have an article before it; as, " The trachea, or windpipe.'? 

32. The adjective some is often placed before numerals to make the number less 
definite ; as, " This happened some fifty years ago." 

33. The adjective some should not be used for the adverb somewhat; as, "He is 
some better" instead of "He is somewhat better." 



ADJECTIVES. 219 

34. With adjectives denoting more than one plural nouns should be used ; as, 
" It weighed twenty pounds ;" not " twenty pound." 

35. A difficulty is sometimes felt in deciding whether the adjective or the adverb 
should follow certain verbs. 

If quality is to be expressed, the adjective should be employed ; if manner, the 
adverb. 

With the verb to be or verbs denoting coming to be it is quality that is to be 
expressed, and the adjective must be employed ; as, " He is cautious ;" " He became 
(came to be) cautious ;" " He grows (is coming to be) cautious ;" " She turned pale." 

All verbs in which the idea of being prevails must have the adjective. 

If to be may be inserted after the verb, the adjective should be used ; as, " She 
appears [to be] happy ;" " I shall continue [to be] thankful." 

If the verb denotes an impression made on any of the senses, the adjective 
should be used ; as, " He looks sad " (is sad to the eye); " The rose smells sweet " (is 
sweet to the smell) ; " This apple tastes bitter " (is bitter to the taste) ; " That music 
sounds sweet " (is sweet to the ear) ; " This board feels smooth " (is smooth to the 
touch). In each of these passages the verb denotes being as perceived by the sense 
indicated, and it is quality that is to be expressed, not manner. 

When the verb denotes activity of the organ of sense the adverb must be used, 
manner being that which is to be expressed; as, "She looks tenderly (in a tender 
manner) at him ;" "He touched the anaconda cautiously" (in a cautious manner); 
" He felt it carefully." 

It is correct to say, "The moon shines bright," the object being to express what 
the moon is; but sometimes the adverb is used with such verbs as shine, the object 
then being to denote in what manner the action is performed ; as, " The moon shone 
gloriously into the room." 

Verbs denoting being in particular states or postures require adjectives; as, 
"The three stood (were) calm and silent." — Macaulay. "Many a nobleman lies (is) 
stark and stiff."— Shakespeare. "Time hangs (is) heavy 4n the hall."— Scott. "The 
uneasiness that sits (is) so heavy upon us." — Locke. 

"John arrived safe." The adjective is correctly used here, because the intention 
is to express the state in which John was when he arrived, not the manner of his 
arrival. 

" I feel badly," an expression employed to declare that the speaker feels unwell, 
indisposed, uncomfortable, or something of the kind, really expresses that the 
speaker is dissatisfied with the manner in which he performs the act of feeling. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out -the adjectives and the nouns to which they belong: 

A bright day followed a gloomy night. She had auburn hair, blue 
eyes, a fair complexion, white teeth, and rosy lips. He was a short, 
square-built old fellow, with thick bushy hair and a grizzled beard. — 
Irving. Her sunny locks hang on her temples like a golden fleece. — 
Shakespeare. Bear not along the clogging burden of a guilty soul. — Id. 

[Remark 1.] I saw a man cutting wood. The young maiden was 
seen standing on the shore, exposed to the merciless winds, and extend- 
ing her hands toward heaven. Having lost his wealth, he was deserted 
by his boon companions. He is writing a letter. 

They fell into a discussion concerning courts-martial. He was an 
excellent critic regarding all artists save one. There is but one opinion 



220 SYNTAX. 

respecting his conduct. He made himself acquainted with every thing 
relating to this question. He made himself acquainted with every 
thing touching this question. He acted with zeal according to his 
knowledge. He acted with zeal excelling his knowledge. Let your 
zeal be according to knowledge. We may soon our satisfaction have 
touching this point. — Shakespeare. He asked a hundred questions 
regarding all things round about him. — Thackeray. Concerning all 
the other provinces of the Western Empire we have continuous 
information. — Macaulay. Touching the nature of these institutions 
there has been much dishonest and acrimonious controversy. — Id. 

[Kemark 3.] To err is human, to forgive divine. Lying is base. 
That he should so far forget himself is wonderful. 

[Kemark 4.] To be idle is to be vicious. Appearing good is not 
always being good. 

[Kemark 5.] This work treats of the true, the beautiful, and the good. 

[Remark 6.] . The rich are not always happy. The truly brave 
are not rash. Some of these girls are careless. The storm detained 
many from the meeting. The day was one of happiness. The life 
of this nobleman was that of a madman. 

[Remark 7.] Viewing the matter in this light, his conduct is not 
surprising. Excepting a few books, every thing in the house was 
destroyed. There was a great deal of confusion and, speaking gener- 
ally, a great deal of straw every where. Respecting what a rancorous 
mind he bears, it is not policy he should come near your person. — 
Shakespeare. 

[Remark 9.] He was a ruler sagacious in counsel and deliberate 
in action. 

[Remark 10.] This occurrence made him happy. Boiling turned 
the lobster red. 

2. Correct the errors : 

He has not enough money to pay for his dinner. I have enough 
bread for us all. 

[Remark 12.] Eor them is reserved that last and decisive stage of 
the great conflict between man and nature in which, advancing from 
success to success, fresh trophies will be constantly won, every struggle 
will issue in a conquest, and every battle end in a victory. — Buckle* 
It is money that the miser alone regards. It is by mercy that he can 
alone be saved. 

*To what noun does advancing belong? The arrangement represents it as 
belonging to trophies. The structure of the sentence must be changed — " in which, 
advancing from success to success, man will constantly win fresh trophies, every 
struggle issuing in a conquest, and every battle ending in a victory?" 



ADJECTIVES. 221 

[Remark 13.] The greatest two men of the time. The young two 
men met. These most worthy two persons. Those indefatigable two 
intriguers. The chief two men. The wisest seven men. The largest 
two rivers. Under the last two designations. Louis caused the last 
two words to he omitted. The first three sultans. The last two of 
these acts. The former seven volumes of the Spectator. The next 
two lines in that ode. The last two chapters. 

[Remark 14.] Isabella was the cause of more misery in both coun- 
tries than any woman who ever lived. — White's History of France. 
The landlord was thought to see further and deeper into things than 
any man in the parish. — Fielding. [The landlord belonged to the 
parish.] The tragedy of Douglas is more popular than any tragedy 
in the English language. — Dr. A. Carlyle. In plot, character, and 
incident, in dialogue, humor, and wit, "The School for Scandal" is 
acknowledged to surpass any comedy of modern times. — Chambers. 
It is a stain the most difficult of all others to expunge. Of all other 
poets Shakespeare is the greatest. 

[Eemark 16.] A more healthier place can not be found. The 
nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

[Remark 17.] Let each of them be heard in their turn. Each of 
you are entitled to your share. Neither of us have had our portion. 
Every one of us have recited our lessons. Neither of these men seem 
to have any idea that their opinions may be wrong. If either of these 
two qualities are wanting, the language is imperfect. Neither of us 
are persons likely to postpone such a meeting. Neither of them are 
remarkable for precision. — Blair. Each of the ladies, like two excellent 
actresses, were perfect in their parts. — Scott. The two sisters were 
extremely different, though each had their admirers. — Id. Neither of 
which are taken into account. — Dean Alford. 

[Remark 19.] I do not like those kind of men. Who broke that 
tongs? "Will you have some of these molasses? We can easily manage 
these sort of things. 

[Remark 21.] This here apple is green, and that there is rotten. 
I have never read them books. Them men spoke to me. 

[Remark 22.] I has a long and short sound. The large and small 
boy went home. Death comes to both the good and bad. Can you 
tell the difference between a tree and shrub? 

[Remark 23.] He was appointed musical director. She has a fine 
photographical case. 

[Remark 24.] All of these books are interesting. I have no hesi- 
tation in saying that all of these forms are incorrect. — Fitzedward Hall. 
Nearly all of these sentences. — KerVs Common-school Grammar. Both 
of the boys were punished. 



222 SYNTAX. 

[Kemark 27.] The north and south pole. The Old and the New 
Testaments. The longest and shortest day of the year. 

[Kemark 28.] I heard Eev. Mr. Anderson preach to-day. Hon. 
Ephraim Jones presided at the meeting. 

[Kemark 29.] He bore the title of a marquis. The word party for 
a man occurs in Shakespeare. — Dean Alford. 

[Kemark 30.] He writes poetry as well as criticisms, but he is a 
better critic than a poet. 

[Kemark 33.] This lesson is some easier than that. 

[Kemark 34.] The pole is twelve foot long. I bought five bushel 
of wheat. 

[Kemark 35.] It made me mad to see him shine so briskly and 
smell so sweetly. That which we call a rose by any other name would 
smell as sweetly. She looks beautifully in that dress. I ate some 
hominy at dinner, and I have felt very badly ever since. He has 
arrived safely at home. 

KULE IX. 

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person ; 
as, "I love, thou loved, he loves, we love, you love, they love" 

Remarks. — 1. In some languages there is a distinct form for each person; as in 
Latin, amo, amas, amat, amamus, amatis, amant. But the English verb has no per- 
sonal termination but est for the second person singular and s for the third person 
singular of the present tense and st for the second person singular of the past tense ; 
as, " Thou loves/, he loves, thou loveds/. (See Remark 1, p. 94.) May, can, might, 
could, would, should have no variation except st for the second person singular ; as, 
mayst, canst. Shall and will have only t for the second person singular, shalt, wilt. 
The verb have has hast, contracted from havest, and has, contracted from haves. Bo 
has dost, contracted from doest. 

The verb be has a greater number of forms ; as, present tense, singular, am, art, 
is, plural, are; past tense, was, wast (wert), was, plural were. 

2. The verb need when followed by an infinitive is generally used without the s 
of the third person singular; as, "He need not be so hasty." It sometimes takes 
the s; as, "She needs not [make a doubt of your valor] when she knows it cow- 
ardice." — Shakespeare. 

Dare when followed by the infinitive is sometimes used without the s; as, "Who 
dare scarce show his head on the Rialto." — Shakespeare. More frequently it takes 
thes; as, "No spirit dares stir abroad." — Shakespeare. "Goodness dares not check 
thee."— Id. "Who dares receive it other?"— Id. 

3. In ordinary language the chief practical points that present themselves are 
whether we are to use in the third person is or are, was or were, has or have, the 
singular form in s or the plural form without s. 

4. When an infinitive, a gerund, or a noun -proposition is the subject (see p. 161) 
the verb must necessarily be of the third person singular; as, "To study pleases 
him." 

5. An adjunct of the subject should not affect the form of the verb; as, "The 
number of oysters increases," not increase; " The ship with all the crew was lost," not 
were. In this sentence there is but one nominative, ship, which is singular and 



VERB AND SUBJECT. 223 

requires a singular verb. Some writers use the plural verb in such cases, but they 
should not be imitated. In most cases it is better to use and with a plural verb. 

" Twice one is two," not " Twice one are two," is the correct form. The number 
one taken twice is equal to two. " Three times two is six" means that the abstract 
number two taken three times is equal to six. 

Some would use the singular when two or more numbers are added ; as, " Two 
and three is equal to five ;" but as there are two or more words connected by and, 
the plural form seems to be required, according to Remark 6. 

6. Two or more singular nouns connected by and expressed or understood, 
being equivalent to a plural noun, take a plural verb; as, "James and Edward are 
studious." 

The same principle applies to nouns (including pronouns) referring to the con- 
nected nouns ; as, "James and Edward are studious boys, and they will learn." And 
in general whatever controls the number of the verb controls the number of the 
noun referring to the subject. 

" The collective disposition and ability of a community, working itself out under 
the guidance of circumstances, determines the phonetic form." — Whitney. Disposi- 
tion and ability are two things, not one thing. 

7. When two or more nouns are connected to denote one whole the verb must 
be singular ; as, "A hue and cry was raised;" " Bread and butter is excellent food." 
Some write words connected in this way as one compound w r ord ; as " hue-and-cry." 

8. When each, every, or no is used with singular nominatives connected by and 
the verb (and noun) must be singular, the objects being taken separately (one by 
one) ; as, •' Each book and paper is kept in its place ;" "Every man, woman, and. 
child was lost ;" " No book and no paper is out of its place." 

9. When subjects connected by and follow the verb the verb is sometimes put in 
the singular number, if the subject next to it is singular ; as, " Thine is the kingdom 
and the power and the glory ;" " The scene was a stable, wherein was an ox, an ass, 
the cradle, the virgin, the babe, Joseph, shepherds, and angels." — Locke. "There 
was such peace and beauty in the scene." — Dickens. In such cases the speaker's 
attention seems to be fixed on each object in succession, and not on all the objects at 
once. The verb is understood with all the subjects but the first. 

10. And may sometimes seem to connect nouns when it really connects propo- 
sitions ; as, "John, and James also, is here " = "John is here, and James also is 
here;" "John, and James too, is here "=" John is here, and James too is here;" 
"John, and not James, is here "=" John is here, and James is not here." In each 
of these examples John is the subject of is expressed, and James is the subject of is 
understood. 

Akin to these constructions are such as "John, but not James, is here"="John 
is here, but James is not here ;" "John, as well as James, is here "="John is here 
as well (truly) as James is here ;" " Pompey, as well as Csesar, was a great general." 

" Here the boys, and especially Charlie, was very much interested in the tools." 
The writer meant that the boys were very much interested, and he should have used 
were, "and especially Charlie" forming part of another proposition. 

If one of two subjects between which and is placed has a negative joined with it, 
it is the subject of a verb understood, the other noun being the subject of the verb 
expressed ; as, "Virtue, and not riches, constitutes the happiness of a nation." Here 
virtue is the subject of constitutes, and riches is the subject of constitute understood. 

11. The speaker regards all associated with him, whether they are denoted by 
one word or by more, as united with him in speaking, and accordingly he includes 
them all with himself by using the plural pronoun of the first person, we {our, ours, 
us) ; so that " you and I "=ice, " George and I "=u?e, " you and I and George "=u?e; 
as, " We soldiers must leave our native land ;" " You and I and George are to get our 
new desks to-day." 



224 SYNTAX. 

12. If the speaker does not mention himself, he includes the person addressed 
and all associated with the person addressed in the plural pronoun of the second 
person, you; so that " thou (you) and George " —you ; as, " Yo u soldiers must leave 
your native land !" " Thou and thy wicked son have spread your snares for my life." 

13. In those languages which have distinct form for each person of the plural 
" You and I," " George and I " take the first person, etc. ; but in English, as the 
three persons of the plural are alike in form, this principle is of no practical 
importance. 

14. Two or more singular nouns connected by or or nor, not being equivalent to a 
plural noun, require a singular verb ; as, "John or James ivas here " (one or the other 
was here, but not both) ; "Neither John nor James was here" (neither the one nor 
the other was here). 

15. When the nominatives connected by or or nor differ in person or number the 
verb agrees with the nominative next to it ; as, " Either thou or I am concerned ;" 
" I or thou art to blame ;" " Neither you nor he is to blame." " Either the prior or 
thou hast made some singular alterations." — Scott* When a singular and a plural 
subject are connected by or or nor the the plural subject is placed next to the verb; 
as, "Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him." 

Few good writers ever use such constructions as these. It is generally better to 
express the verb with each subject or to change the form of expression ; as, " Either 
thou art concerned or I am," or " One of us is concerned ;" " I am to blame or thou 
art," or " One of us is to blame," or " The blame rests on me or thee ;" " He was 
injured by neither poverty nor riches," etc. 

10. A collective noun in the singular number takes a singular verb when the 
speaker thinks of the collection as one mass or body, a plural verb when he has in 
his mind the individual objects composing the collection. 

"The crowd was immense, and it swayed hither and thither in one unbroken 
mass." Here the crowd is spoken of as one, and accordingly the verb was and the 
noun ta are in the singular number. "All the world are spectators of your conduct." 
It is the persons composing the world that are here spoken of, and accordingly the 
verb are and the noun spectators are in the plural number. 

"The army destroys everything in its course ;" "The army destroy everything 
in their course." Which of these is the correct expression? Does the speaker 
think of the army as one body, or does he think of the individual soldiers ? Evi- 
dently he thinks of the army as one body, and he should use the singular verb and 
noun. 

Let the pupil ask himself similar questions with respect to "The nation is 
powerful" and "The nation are powerful," "The meeting was large" and "The 
meeting were large," "The multitude pursue pleasure as their chief good" and 
" The multitude pursues pleasure as its chief good," " The corporation consists of 
a mayor and council " and " The corporation consist of a mayor and council," " The 
committee was very full" and "The committee were very full." He will see that 
the first expression in each series is the correct one. 

* Latham says that when the words either or neither precede the pronouns the 
verb is in the third person ("Either he or I is in the wrong," "Neither he nor I is 
in the wrong"), and that when the pronouns are not preceded by either or neither the 
verb agrees with the first (" I or he am in the wrong," " He or I is in the wrong," 
"You or he are in the wrong," "He or you is in the wrong"). Every cultivated 
ear instinctively rejects such expressions as those presented here as models. What 
ear could tolerate " Either the prior or thou has made some singular alterations " ? 
The ear tolerates expressions containing a verb which is inconsistent with one 
subject but consistent with the other only when the verb is placed next to the 
subject with which it is consistent. 



VERB AND SUBJECT. 225 

When a person invites the public to attend a lecture or speech should he say, 
"The public is invited" or "The public are invited" ? In other words, does he 
think of the whole public as one mass, or does he think of the persons composing 
the public? Evidently it is of the persons composing the public that he is thinking, 
and he should say, " The public are invited." 

17. With the second person of the imperative the subject is generally omitted ; 
as, " Go [you] in peace." {See Rule I, Remark 3.) 

18. When the subject is a relative pronoun it is sometimes omitted. (See Rule I, 
Remark 4.) 

19. The subject is sometimes omitted when it is the antecedent to a relative 
pronoun ; as, " Who combats bravely is not therefore brave."— Pope. (See p. 36.) 

20. " Betwixt four and five years had elapsed since they had parted on the beach 
of the island of Roseneath."— Scott. What is the subject of had elapsed? Not years; 
for that is in the objective case after the preposition betwixt. Some such word as 
space is implied. 

The subject is omitted in such expressions as as follows, as appears; as, "The 
road is dangerous, as [it, the matter] appears from his statement;" "His speech was 
as follows ;" "His words were as follows.'" It or some other general word is the 
subject of follows, which takes the same form whether the word preceding it is 
singular, like speech, or plural, like words. 

21. There is a construction in which by the omission of the subject but seems to 
be equivalent to a relative pronoun and not;''-' as, " There is no man but knows"= 
" There is no man who does not know." " There was not a pretty face in the whole 
country but came in for a share." — Irving. "There is scarcely one of these char- 
acters but is a villain." — Thackeray. "There's not a breeze but whispers of thy 
name."— Procter. " What tender maid but must a victim fall V'—Pope. 

"On the house-tops was no woman 
But spat towards him and hissed ; 
No child but screamed out curses 
And shook its little fist." — Macaulay. 

"There's not a string attuned to mirth 
But has its chord of melancholy." — Hood. 

"No sycophant or slave that dared oppose 
Her sacred cause but trembled when he rose." — Cowper. 

" There 's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st 
But in his motion like an angel sings." — Shakespeare. 

We may suppose an ellipsis of a personal pronoun in this construction; as, 
"There's not a breeze but it whispers of thy name." But a relative seems to be 
wanting. " There is no man but [a man who] knows." " There 's not a breeze but 
[a breeze that] whispers of thy name." "There was no sycophant be out [a syco- 
phant that] trembled when he rose." 

22. The subject is sometimes improperly omitted; as, "The whole is produced 
as an illusion of the first class and hopes it will be found worthy of patronage." Here 
hopes is connected to is produced, and the whole is represented as hoping, etc. He or 
some other noun should be inserted before hopes. "Any person finding the spec- 
tacles, and will return them to the Gait House, shall be liberally rewarded." Here 
person is the subject of shall be rewarded, and will return has no subject. Corrected, 
"Any person who shall find the spectacles and return them," etc. " Their master 
happened to stay at home that summer to finish a galley he was building to cruise 
with, and was then upon the stocks." — LockharVs Don Quixote. Here the master is 

* Like the Latin quin; as, Nemo est quin sciat, where quin=qui non. 



226 SYNTAX. 

represented as being on the stocks. Which should be inserted before was. "A kind 
of riding with short stirrups which the Spaniards took from the Arabians, and is still 
used by all the African and Eastern nations."— LockharVs Don Quixote. What is the 
subject of is used? Not which; for that is the object of took. Insert which before 
is used. 

23. As the relative pronoun does not vary in form for number or person, the 
number and person of the verb are determined by the antecedent; as, "J who am, 
thou who art, he who is, we who are, you who are, they who are.'" 

" Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, head of one of the greatest houses that 
ever was in England." — Maqinn. The antecedent to the relative that is houses, and 
the verb should be plural — " one of the greatest houses that ever were in England." 
"He was one of the most mischievous statesmen that has ever appeared in modern 
Europe." — Sir Jonah Harrington. Why is has in this passage incorrect? "He was 
the most mischievous statesman that has ever appeared in modern Europe." Is 
the singular has in this passage correct ? Why ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the verbs and subjects: 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. — Gray. 

Lovely indeed the mimic works of Art, 

But Nature's works far lovelier. — Cowper. 
How noiseless is thought! No rolling of drums, no tramp of 
squadrons or immeasurable tumult of baggage- wagons, attends its 
movements. — Carlyle. 

2. Correct the errors : 

They was discontented. You has no book. Does you live there? 
You is here. You was there. You loves rain. We was delighted. 
Thou has been pleased. Was you present? Them's my sentiments. 
Circumstances alters cases. Molasses are sweet, and so are honey. 
His pulse are very rapid. Idle boys hates study. Fifty pounds of 
wheat contains forty pounds of flour. Here lies the remains of John 
Smith. Not one in ten of the English plays written before the time 
of Shakespeare have escaped destruction. — R. G. White. The deriva- 
tion of the word, as well as the usage of the great majority of English 
writers, fix the spelling the other way. — Dean Alford. 

[Kemark 5.] A part of the exports consist of raw silk. Nothing 
but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. The derivation 
of these words are uncertain. The general with some soldiers were 
taken. 

[Kemark 6.] Idleness and ignorance produces many vices. John 
and James has been here. Temperance and exercise preserves health. 
Time and tide waits for no man. Our welfare and security consists in 
unity. Honor and fame from no condition rises. He and I was there. 
The love of virtue and devotion to pleasure is opposed to each other. 
His energy and industry was remarkable. What means that noise and 



VERB AND SUBJECT. 227 

excitement? Much does human pride and folly require correction. 
If his explanation and mine agrees. — Smollett. 

[Remark 8.] Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water teem 
with life. Every sight and every sound amaze him. Each day and 
hour and moment are to be properly employed. No wife, no mother 
were there to comfort him. 

[Remark 10.] The mind, and not the body, sin. Merit, and not 
patronage, cause his promotion. Diligent industry, and not mean 
savings, produce honorable competence. Cicero, as well as Demos- 
thenes, were great orators. Books, and not pleasure, occupies his time. 

[Remark 14.] Either ability or inclination were wanting. George 
or William have the book. Neither Jonathan nor Joseph were there. 
Our happiness or misery are in a great measure *put in our own bands. 
Neither George nor Thomas nor Richard are studying. Florence or 
Elizabeth favor us with their company every evening. A man is not 
such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move only as they are 
moved. One or the other of these boys must relinquish their claim. I 
have carefully marked the secondary evidence on whose faith a passage 
or a fact were reduced to depend. — Gibbon. I am one of those whom 
neither fear nor anxiety deprive of their ordinary appetite. — Scott. 
A circle, a square, a triangle, or a hexagon please the eye by their 
regularity. — Blair. 

The traveler, he whom sea or mountain sunder 

Erom his own country, sees things strange and new. — Rose. 

[Remark. 16.] The British Parliament are composed of King, 
Lords, and Commons. The Congress of the United States consist 
of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The public is invited 
to attend, and we can promise it much pleasure. The council was 
divided in its sentiments. The committee were very full when this 
point was decided. The crowd I met were very large. 

[Remark 22.] The calm in which he was born and lasted so long 
did not continue to the eiid of his life. He is a man whom I have 
known for a long time, and sustains an excellent character. Wilkes 
was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great 
abilities. Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, ' 

And never, never be to heaven resigned?— Pope. 

[Remark 23.] Scott is one of those men of genius who delights in 
the genius of others. — C. R. Leslie. He came at last to prove one of 
the cruellest renegades that ever was known. — LockhavCs Don Quixote. 
Thackeray's u Virginians," one of the most elaborate and careful and 
exquisite pictures of English life a hundred years ago that has ever 
been painted by pen or pencil. — Harper's Magazine. One of the most 



228 SYNTAX. 

peculiar cases that has ever been recorded. — Mrs. Gordon. One of the 
most valuable books for the improvement of young minds that has 
appeared in any language. — Boswell. In that short time he effected 
one of the most extensive, difficult, and salutary reforms that ever was 
accomplished by any statesman. — Macaulay. Abnormal is one of those 
words which has come in to supply a want in the precise statements 
of science.— Dean Alford. 

KULE X. 

The infinitive may be used as a noun, an adjunct, or a 

finite verb.* 

* Noun-infinitive. 

As a noun the infinitive may be used — 

1. As subject of a verb; as, "To play is pleasant;" "To rule a state 
is a difficult art;" "I feel it to be my duty to ^o"="I feel that to go is 
my duty." (See p. 161, 3, and Kem.) To go, or it, to go, subject of to be, 

2. As object of a transitive verb; as, "Boys love to play ;" "He 
refused to labor;" "He has begun to study; 11 "George wishes to learn;" 
"They sought to slay him;" "She tried to run; 11 "I have to pay it;" 
"Justice ought (owes) to prevail; 11 "Justice should prevail; 11 "I can 
write 11 (see p. 82); "He may go. 11 

3. As predicate-nominative; as, "To persevere is to succeed; 11 "The 
proper course is to pay the debt." 

4. As object of a preposition; as, "He is about to go 11 

5. As noun in apposition; as, "Delightful task! to rear the tender 
thought." 

6. As nominative independent; as, "To die, to sleep. 11 

7. As nominative absolute; as, "To whisper being forbidden," "It 
being forbidden to whisper 11 (See p. 161, 3, and Kemark.) 

8. As factitive objective; as, "I saw hinijfaZZ," "I heard him sing; 11 
"I feel my pulse beat. 11 t This may be called the factitive infinitive. 

* Some represent the infinitive as always having a subject. In " John loves 
to play" to play is regarded as having John for its subject. This is an erroneous 
view. To play is merely a name for the action, and with respect to a subject does 
not differ from an abstract noun. "John loves to p?m/"="John loves play.' 1 Both 
these forms imply that there is some one to play; and the infinitive to play is no 
more to be regarded as having a subject than is the noun play. 

t At least I do not believe that sentences like Ich sah ihn fallen, " I saw him fall," 
Ick horte ihn singen, " I heard him sing," Ich hiess ihn gehen, " I bade him go," Lass 
michgehen, " let me go," analogous cases to which occur in Sanskrit, can be taken 
otherwise than so that the working of the operation of seeing, hearing, etc., falls 
directly upon the person or thing which one sees, hears, charges, etc., and then 
won the action expressed by the infinitive which one in like manner sees, hears, 



THE INFINITIVE. 229 

Adjunct-infinitive. 
The infinitive as adjunct may contain the idea of — 

1. At; as, "We sigh to see such ruin" (at seeing); "I rejoice to 
hear it" (at hearing); "Just as grieved appears [at] to want the 
strength of bulls." 

2. In; as, "Boys delight to play" (in playing); "He is prompt to 
perform his duty" (in performing); "They rejoice [in] to do evil;" 
"Be thou the first [in] to befriend true merit;" "He is wiser than [he 
would be wise] to do this" (in doing); "Brooks exults [in] to trust 
and blushes [at] to be paid." 

3. Of; as, "He was desirous to learn" (of learning); "Worthy to 
be promoted" (of being promoted); "I am ashamed [of] to have 
encouraged such a villain;" " He was afraid [of] to see her;" "The 
generous pleasure [of] to be charmed with wit." — Pope. 

4. 0?i; as, "They tremble to hear these murmurs" (on hearing); 
"She smiled to see the doughty hero slain" (on seeing); "Kesolved 
[on] to win the prize;" "Determined [on] to resist." 

5. With; as, "Still pleased to teach (with teaching), and yet not 
proud to know (of knowing), nor yet too vain [for] to mend." — Pope. 
"She should have been content [with] to manage well that mighty 
government." — Dryden. 

6. From; as, "Yet oft a sigh prevails and sorrows fall 

To see (from seeing) the sum of human bliss so small; 

And oft T wish amidst the scene to find 

Some spot to real happiness consigned, 

Where my worn soul, each wandering hope at rest, 

May gather bliss [from] to see my fellows blest." — Goldsmith. 

7. For; as, "They serve [for] to fill a room;" "She stoops [for] to 
conquer;" "He has come in order, [for] to relieve you;" "I sigh [for] 
to behold the scenes of my youth;" "He sent the servant [for] to 

etc. The two objects of the verb are coordinate, and stand in the relation of appo- 
sition to one another (I saw "him" and "falling," "the action of falling"). It 
appears, however, from the context, but is not formally expressed, that the action 
expressed by the second object [as "fall "] is performed by the first object ("I saw 
the stone fall ").— Bopp's Comparative Grammar of the Sanskrit, etc., 3, 1285. 

It does not seem to be true that the action of seeing, hearing, etc., falls first 
upon the person or thing which one sees, etc., and then upon the action expressed 
by the infinitive. The infinitive rather completes the idea begun to be expressed 
by the verb of seeing, for instance, and then the person or thing seen is made the 
object of the complex expression (see "factitive objective" Remark 11, p. 203) "I 
saw"-f" fall "=" I saw-fall." What did I see-fall ? The stone. Compare "Let me 
go" and "Dismiss me," " He let fly a stone " and " He threw a stone." 



230 SYNTAX. 

bring the letters;" "There is a time [for] to laugh;" "He is too proud 
[for] to labor;" "I have a house [for] to sell;" "This house is [for] to 
be sold;" "He has a great desire [for] to improve;" "The fruit is ripe 
enough [for] to use;" "Boys long [for] to play;"* " In the time [for] to 
come. T "And shall I think the world was made for one, 
And men are born for kings, as beasts for men, 
Not for protection, but [for] to be devoured?" — Dryden. 

Verb-infinitive. 
In the sense of a finite verb the infinitive may be used — 

1. With a subject in the objective {see Eule I, Remark 1, p. 188) ; 
as, "I know him to be honest;" "Let him be punished;" "He orders 
the bridge to be broken down;" "He confessed himself to be in fault." 

Remarks.— 1. An infinitive, a gerund, or a noun-proposition may be the subject 
of an infinitive; as, "I believe it to be a difficult matter to understand him"="I 
believe to understand him to be a difficult matter." (Or it, to understand. See p. 161, 
3, Remark.) "We find walking to be more agreeable than sitting still." "That he 
was the author we, believe to have been the opinion of all his friends "=" We believe 
that-he-was-the-author to have been the opinion of all his friends." 

2. An infinitive with its subject may be introduced by for ; as, "For us to do so 
would be improper." (See p. 161.) Bat for before an infinitive with its subject is not 
always merely introductory; as, " This passage is too difficult for me to translate." 
Here for is a preposition having as its object me to translate. (See Remark 5, p. 206.) 

2. Without a subject; as, "He was commanded to retreat" (that 
he should retreat); "He was advised to do it" (that he should do it); 
" Philip swore to abstain from aggression" (that he would abstain); 
"I told him how to do it" (how he should or could do it) ; "He was so 
blind as not to see the danger" (that he did not see); u To confess the 
truth, I was in fault." [See "Substitutes and Transformations," fourth 
paragraph, p. 176.) 

Remarks. — 1. For such expressions as " He is said to be honest" see Remark, 
p. 177. " Bills are requested to be paid in advance." Such expressions as this seem 
to push this construction about as far as it can in reason be expected to go. % 

2. The to of the infinitive was originally a preposition. The Anglo-Saxons had 
two forms of the infinitive, one without to, as helpan, to help ; the other with to, as 

* " Than longen folke to gon on pilgrimages, 

And palmeres for to seken strange strondes." — Chaucer. 
f"The days that are yet for to come." — Psalter. 
X This construction is common in Greek and Latin and is called in Greek and 
Latin grammars " The personal construction for the impersonal," personal denoting 
the construction in which a noun is the subject (whether it denotes a person or not), 
and impersonal denoting the construction in which a proposition is the subject." 
Impersonal, "It is said that he is honest;" personal, "He is said to be honest." 
(See Hadley's Greek Grammar, p. 285; Harkness's Latin Grammar, p. 254.) 



THE INFINITIVE. 231 

to helpanne, to or for helping. This form is by some called the dative of the infini- 
tive, by others the gerund. The two forms in the course of time became confounded, 
so that the form with to came to be used instead of the simple form, and the nature 
of the preposition was forgotten.* 

But a word does not often change its meaning so completely as to lose all traces 
of its original meaning, and we find to still employed as a preposition in some 
constructions, particularly with words denoting tendency; as, "She is disposed to 
be merry " (to merriment) ; " They are obliged to be cautious " (bound to caution) ; 
" He is inclined to be sad " (to sadness) ; " I was forced to comply " (to compliance) ; 
"He aspired to rule;" "I am going to study;" " He was urged to declare war;" 
" These things are destined to perish;" " It came to pass ;" "It will go near to be 
thought so ;" " This will contribute to produce satisfaction." 

3. The simple form of the infinitive (without to) is used after the so called 
auxiliaries, can, may, must, might, could, would, should; as, "I can write,'''' "I must 
write." The verbs after shall, will, and do, are simple forms of the infinitive; as, 
"I shall write" "I will write," " I do write." 

4. The simple form is used after the verbs bid, dare (venture), feel, hear, let, make, 
need, see, behold, observe, perceive, and have (in the sense of procure, require, cause) ; 
as, "I bade him follow;" "I feel the pain abate;" " He made me go;" "You dare 
not meet him;" "We saw him fall;" "You heard him say so;" "I let him go;" 
"They would have us give up our rights ;" " How delightful to behold a young man 
resist the allurements of vice !" 

To is sometimes used with the infinitive after some of these verbs, particularly 
when they are emphatic; as, "The law of friendship bids me to conceal." — Shake- 
speare. "And bade me to dismiss you." — Id. "And dar'st thou then to beard the lion 
in his den ?"— Scott. 

After the passive voice of such of these verbs as are transitive, except let, to is 
used ; as, " He was heard to declare;" " He was seen to fall." 

5. The simple form is used in such passages as the following : " They are not 
willing to do so much as listen to his story ;" " They wish to do something more 
than eat and sleep;" " Better not be at all than not be noble ;" " She does nothing but 
sigh." The infinitive sigh is the subject of the verb be disguised in but (be out to 
sigh. See Remark 14, p. 139). 

6. In the minds of some persons there seems to J)e a great deal of confusion 
with respect to the subject of the infinitive. To determine whether an objective after 
a transitive verb is the object of that verb or the subject of the infinitive following, 
nothing is necessary but to change the infinitive to a finite verb and see whether the 
object becomes the subject of the finite verb. " He commanded the soldier to 
shoot "=" He commanded the soldier that he should* shoot," soldier being the 
object of commanded, not the subject of to shoot. "He commanded the soldier to 
be shot"=" He commanded that the soldier should be shot." Here soldier is the 
subject of the infinitive to be shot. The command was not given to the soldier. 

"The infinitive is used . . with a subject in the objective case; as, He told 
him to go." — Vickroy's English Grammar, p. 187. Here him is not the subject of the 
infinitive to go, but the object of the transitive verb told. The passage does not mean 
that he told that he should go. "The general sent him to reconnoiter. Him is 
construed as the subject of the infinitive to reconnoiter." — Vickroy's Eng. Grammar, 
p. 190. Him is not the subject of to reconnoiter, but the object of sent. The general 
sent him [for] to reconnoiter, that he should reconnoiter. 

* To say, as Goold Brown and others do, that to is a preposition in such expres- 
sions as "To play is pleasant" is as absurd as to say that all the Smiths of the 
present day are smiths. 



232 SYNTAX. 

Another writer gives as examples of infinitives with subjects the following: 
"I bade him follow;" "He commanded me to desist;" " The ant told the butterfly 
to go about his business." It is easy to see that the nouns following bade, com- 
manded, and told are the objects of those verbs, not the subjects of the infinitives 
following. 

7. The imperfect infinitive denotes something as imperfect, still going on or 
about to take place ; the perfect infinitive something perfect or past at the time 
indicated. " The bulls of Colchis are reported to have brazen feet."— Swift As the 
writer did not wish to represent the bulls of Colchis as still in existence, he should 
have used the perfect infinitive, to have had. " The Bailie had a great mind to have 
continued the dispute."— Scott. As the Bailie's "great mind" did not regard some- 
thing that was past at the time, the imperfect should have been used—" The Bailie 
had a great mind to continue the dispute." "I was once inclined to have gone on 
shore." — Defoe. Was the going on shore to precede the inclination ? The answer to 
this question shows to go to be the proper expression. "I expected to have found 
him at home." We do not expect (look forward to) what is past. " I was anxious to 
have done it." At the time of the anxiety was the doing past? If not, to have done is 
incorrect. Apply the principle to "Yesterday I hoped to have seen you." If we 
intend to refer the seeing to the time denoted by yesterday and the hoping to some 
previous time, we should say, "I had hoped to see you yesterday." 

8. For " He ought to have gone" see p. 114, 10. If the verb ought had a regular 
form for the past tense, this would be " He oughted to go." The perfect infinitive is 
employed to express what ought has no form to express. A similar construction is 
to be seen in "He should have gone," "He could have gone," "He might have 
gone," etc. 

9. It is an error to omit to in any case except such as have been mentioned. Do 
not say, "Please excuse me," but " Please to excuse me." 

10. Avoid the vulgarism of using and instead of to; as, "I will try and see him," 
instead of " I will try to see him." 

11. It is a vulgarism to use the sign to without a verb; as, "They are always 
doing what they want to;" "I can go, if I wish to;" instead of "They are always 
doing what they want to do;" " I can go, if I wish," or "if I wish to go" or "if I 
wish to do so." 

12. The infinitive and the gerund being so nearly allied (see p. 81), in some con- 
structions either the infinitive or the gerund may be used ; as, "To play is pleasant," 
or "Playing is pleasant;" "He ceased to speak" or "He ceased speaking." But 
some words require the infinitive, others the gerund; as, "He began to speak;" 
" He commenced speaking." It is incorrect to use the infinitive after commence. 
"I recollect having seen him" is better than I recollect to have seen him." "She 
acknowledged to have felt an impulse towards him." — Irving. Better, having felt. 
" He was suspected to entertain sentiments unfavorable to the government." — Scott. 
Better, of entertaining. "In danger to form rash and hasty conclusions." — Swift. 
Better, of forming. " So supercilious and exacting that the footmen avoided to go his 
errands." — Taine's Eng. Literature. Avoided going [on]. "I do not care for termi- 
nating my thoughts in barren speculations." — Addison. Care to terminate. 

13. For the gerund in such forms as "The house is building" see Remark 3, 
p. 102. Some examples are presented here. " The whilst this play is playing." — 
Shakespeare. " I saw that a way was opening for the establishment of real liberty, 
that a foundation was laying for the deliverance of man." — Milton. "While the 
temple of the Lord was building." — Id. "Designs are carrying on against their 
liberties." — Locke. "He begged the honor of his Majesty's accepting a dinner 
while his carriage was repairing, and while the dinner was preparing begged leave 
to amuse his Majesty with a collection of pictures."— Horace Walpole. " While this 
necessary movement was making" — Cooper. "An attempt is making in the English 



THE INFINITIVE. 233 

Parliament." — Daniel Webster. " While these things were transacting in England." — 
Bancroft. " While innocent blood was shedding under the forms of justice Parliament 
met."— Macaulay. " There is always mason's work doing.'"— Ruskin. " The excellent 
edition of Shakespeare now publishing in Boston."— G. P. Marsh. " For me the final 
chapter is now writing ; it may be already written."— John Bright." (See Note O.) 

EXERCISES. 

1. Show how the infinitives are used: 

To err is human. To whisper in school is forbidden. To remain 
here is impossible. 

To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, 

And to be grave exceeds all power of face. — Pope. 

These boys love to study. He has learned to swim. Cease to do evil. 

Learn to do well. He scorns to lie. I dislike to scold him. He desires 

to see her. They began to fight. He has ceased to read. Fools rush 

in where angels fear to tread. Give me to see, and Ajax asks no more. 

What a tangled web we weave 

When first we practice to deceive. — Scott. 

To live is to think. The property of rain is to wet. The best way 
is to frighten him. His chief object is to get money. This thing, to 
stand waiting for hours, has become wearisome. This alone is evil 
fortune, to be deprived of knowledge. You were about to speak. 
They are about to elect him. To forget him so soon ! To live with 
-such a woman! To please her being impossible. To understand him 
being so difficult. 

They grieve to see him so fallen. I am surprised to find you so 
heedless. He wondered to meet her there. I am glad to see you. Let 
dogs delight to bark and bite. He was afraid to venture. They are 
desirous to excel. If they are handsome, they have the gift to know it. 
The earth shook to see the heavens on fire. They are resolved to con- 
quer or die. I am satisfied to see you safe; I ask no more. They are 
content to threaten, though they would destroy. I am best pleased to 
be absent. Pope was not content to satisfy; he desired to excel. 

I read to learn. Yv r e should eat to live, not live to eat. He is too 
deaf to hear you. There is a time to weep. He was anxious to succeed. 
He had no opportunity to distinguish himself. One of the few, the 
immortal names that were not born to die. We are ready to recite. 
We were too late to take the train. There is no time to waste. I come 



* Dickens, whom grammaticasters seem to have frightened from his propriety 
at the beginning of his career, recovered himself at a more mature period. " Baskets, 
troughs, and tubs of grapes had been carrying all day along the roads and lanes." — 
Little Dorrit. " Among the mighty store of wonderful chains that are for ever 
forging.'" — Edwin Drood. " The street lamps were lighting." — Little Dorrit. 

20 



234 SYNTAX. 

to bury Caesar, not to praise him. This horse is to be sold. She is to 
be married. 

Faith, gospel, all, seemed made to be disputed; 

And none had sense enough to be confuted. — Pope. 

All fools have still an itching to deride. — Id. 

I supposed him to be a gentleman. That will cause you to be 
despised. The sovereigns had ordered their throne to be placed in 
public. — Irving. The passage of Caesar is insufficient to prove the rein- 
deer to have existed in Germany. — Milman. I believe Halifax to have 
been the author. — Macaulay. He believed it to be wrong. He did 
[that] what he believed to be wrong. He took a course which the 
event showed to have been taken too hastily. 

I gave my love a ring and made him swear never to part with it. 
Never to speak of this that you have seen SAvear by my sword. He 
was ordered to depart out of the kingdom. He was requested to give 
money. They were commanded to advance rapidly. He knows not 
where to lay his head. Can you tell me how to do this? He was so 
foolish as to rush into the snare. To speak plainly, he is very ignorant. 
To conclude, they are like the fruits of the earth in this unnatural 
season. Their progress was such as to excite admiration. It is so high 
as to be inaccessible. He went on in a noble strain of thought and 
language, so as to chain the attention of every hearer. — Macaulay. 
Every passion, not to mention health and sickness and the greater 
alterations in body and mind, makes us appear almost different 
creatures.— Addison. Greece her useful rules indites 

When to repress and when indulge our nights. — Pope. 

2. Correct the errors: 

So let he and I say good-night together. Let you and I be together. 
The person I had seen in pattens, and who I suppose to have been the 
cook, frequently came. 

[Eemark 4.] I heard him to say. I saw him to enter the house. 
Let no rash promise to be made. I felt a chilling sensation to creep 
over me. Wanton jests make fools to laugh and wise men to frown. 

He was heard say. He was seen enter the house. The pain was 
felt abate. He was made go with them. He was observed put his 
hand in the gentleman's pocket. 

[Remark 7.] The bulls of Guisando are two vast statues remaining 
in that town ever since the time of the Romans, supposed to be set up 
by Metellus. — Lockharfs Don Quixote. I can not excuse the remissness 
of those whose business it should have been to have interposed their good 
offices. I found him better than I expected to have found him. I was 



PREPOSITIONS. 235 

then disposed to have yielded. They would have found it difficult to 
have accomplished their purpose. "We have done no more than it was 
our duty to have done. It would have been no difficult matter to have 
compiled a volume of such amusing precedents. I intended to have 
started yesterday. They would say that the facts stated in the indict- 
ment would have been fully sufficient to have warranted the judge to 
have directed and the jury to have given a general verdict of guilty. — 
Lord Erskine. 

[Remark 9.] Please give me that book. It is better to live on a 
little than outlive a great deal. You ought not walk so fast. Mary 
helped me do it. 

[Remark 10.] I will try and do my duty. We ought not to try 
and over-define or prove God. — Taines English Literature. 

[Remark 11.] He was ordered to go, but he did not wish to. I 
said, I will try not to whisper this forenoon, and I did not; then I 
said, I will try not to this afternoon. Be sure to write yourself, and 
tell him to. 

[Remark 12.] He is in danger to form bad habits. He was suspected 
to be friendly to the banished family. He avoided to express himself 
decidedly. She has not commenced to study yet. 

RULE XI. 

A preposition with its object forms an adjunct modifying 
some preceding word; as, "He sat by me" 

The preceding word is sometimes called the antecedent term. 

"He went from Boston to Philadelphia." From what? From 
Boston. What from Boston ? Went from Boston. From Boston is 
an adjunct to went. To what? To Philadelphia. What to Philadel- 
phia? Went to Philadelphia. To Philadelphia is an adjunct to went. 

"By imprudence he was plunged into difficulties." By what? By 
imprudence. What by imprudence? Was plunged by imprudence. 
By imprudence is an adjunct to was plunged. Into what? Into diffi- 
culties. What into difficulties? Was plunged into difficulties. Into 
difficulties is an adjunct to was plunged* 

* It is not always so easy to see what is the antecedent term, especially in the 
works of such authors as Pope. 

"'Tis from high life high characters are drawn; 
A saint in crape is twice a saint in lawn." 
To make in lawn an adjunct to saint would represent a saint in crape as being twice 
as high a character as a saint in lawn ; but Pope's meaning is that one who is a saint 
when he is in crape (a common clergyman) would be twice a saint if he were in lawn 
(a bishop). 



236 SYNTAX. 

Remarks.— 1. The object is sometimes omitted. (See Rule VI, Remark 6.) 

2. The antecedent term is sometimes omitted; as, " [To say all] in a word, he 
is ruined ;" "All the horrors of war before known or heard of were mercy [when 
compared] to that new havoc." — Burke. " These, [reckoning] to a man, will hate or 
suspect him." — Pope. " They met us [amounting] to the number of three hundred." 
" The queen that bore thee, [who was] oftener upon her knees than on her feet, died 
every day she lived." — Shakespeare. "Virtue [being] in distress excites pity." "A 
poem [written] by Sir Walter Scott." "They are often governed by fancy instead 
of [being governed] by reason." 

3. For in vain, etc., see Remark 14, p. 147. For from forth, etc., see p. 134, second 
paragraph. 

4. For from before, etc., see Remark 5, p. 134. "Lambeth is over against West- 
minster Abbey." Some make a "compound preposition" of over against in such 
constructions ; but each of these words has its own meaning ; against means opposite 
to* and over implies the other side of something. Lambeth is against (opposite to) 
Westminster Abbey, and it is over the Thames. (See Remark 16, p. 140.) 

5. Two prepositions are sometimes placed before the same object; as, "Did you 
vote for or against the measure ?" When a preposition is separated from its object 
by several words the effect is generally unpleasant; as, " He came from and is now 
returning to France." Better, " He came from France and is now returning to it." 
Such forms as that mentioned above should be employed only when they produce 
special exactness or clearness. 

6. Care should be taken to use the proper preposition. 

There is no abatement or the disease ; not in. He has a great abhorrence of such 
things; not to. That is abhorrent to his feelings. That country abounds in corn. 
The faithful man shall abound with blessings. I do not wish to abridge him or his 
privileges ; sometimes from. He accommodated himself to circumstances. Accom- 
modate him with a loan. He was accused of having done this. He was acquitted of 
the accusation. This was well adapted to the purpose. Adjust the garment to the 
body; not with. She admonished him of his fault. To get the advantage of him ; or 
over. He is an advocate for peace. His affection for his parents ; sometimes to. 
Painting has great affinity with poetry. The Marquis of Lome's affinity to Queen 
Victoria. I could not agree with him in that opinion. He agreed to my proposal. 
This dialect is akin to that ; not with. This caused her alienation from him. This 
clan is allied to that. They have formed an alliance with him. She made an altera- 
tion in the dress. Alexander was ambitious of glory; sometimes for; as, "I am 
ambitious for a motley coat." — Shakespeare. This is analogous to that. We find 
some analogy between plants and animals. Plants have some analogy to animals ; 
or with. He is angry with her. He is angry at her conduct. She has a great 
antipathy to a cat; sometimes against. This was appropriate to his circumstances. 
I argued with him for an hour. Arrayed in purple and fine linen ; sometimes with. 
We arrived at Stonington. He is ashamed of having deceived you. Attend to what I 
say. Attend on f that lady. He is averse to flattery. He has a great aversion to it ; 
sometimes for; formerly from. 

She beguiled him of his money with flattering words. He bestowed the money on 
his favorites. He brags of his dog. They are bigoted to their idols. He blushed for 
shame. They still blush at vice. 

The room is capable of holding five hundred persons. He has no capacity for 
thinking. He certified me of the fact. They charge the crime on us. They charge 

* "Against the Tiber's mouth, but far away, 

An ancient town was seated on the sea." — Dryden. 
f Whenever on is mentioned upon, which has the same meaning, may be used. 



PKEPOSITIOXS. 237 

us with the crime. A little water clears us of this deed. I am clear from treason. 
The canals communicate with one another. He communicated the matter to his 
friends. He compared anger to a fire. Compared with him, she is as pure as snow. 
I concur with him in opinion. Gambling and drinking concurred to his ruin. He 
conferred a favor on them. Do you confide in him ? You must conform to the rule ; 
sometimes with. The climate was not congenial to him ; sometimes with. Health 
consists with temperance alone. The poem consists of ten stanzas. Our safety consists 
in a strict adherence to duty. This course is not consistent with honor. He is con- 
versant with such persons and with such things.- Do you correspond with your 
friend during his absence f This corresponds to what I told you ; sometimes with. 

He was debarred from this privilege ; sometimes of. Defend us from our 
enemies; sometimes against. Deficient in means to carry on war. He thinks it 
derogatory to his dignity. Acts of Parliament derogatory from the power of subse- 
quent Parliaments. The pound of flesh which I demand of him. He denounced war 
upon them; or against. Does our happiness depend on political institutions? He 
was dependent on her ; but independent of ; sometimes on. The place is destined to 
destruction ; sometimes for. They shall die by the sword. He died of the cholera. 
She died for love. One star differs from another. I differ (disagree) with him on 
that point; sometimes from. I disagree with you on that point. He disagreed to 
our proposal. The rain will disappoint us of our walk. The road was so muddy that 
we were disappointed in the walk we took. This discouraged him from such attempts. 
This was a great discouragement from such attempts ; sometimes to. She was 
disgusted with his foppery ; or at. He has a dislike to such proceedings ; sometimes 
of. That is no disparagement to his understanding. You are disposed to mirth. He 
has disposed of his property. This disposes him for the reception of truth. He is 
distinguished for his eloquence. He is distinguished from the rest by his eloquence. 

He is eager for riches ; sometimes after. They embarked in that vessel for 
Venice. He was passionately enamored of her. His endeavors after happiness ; 
sometimes for. He enjoins on them the duty of obedience. He entered into the 
plot. He immediately entered on business. His name was entered in the register. 
He made his entrance into the fort. Be not envious of the wicked; sometimes at. 
My praise is not equal to your merit. If thou art with great men, make not thyself 
equal with them. He was excepted from the number. There are exceptions to every 
rule; rarely from. She is expert in sewing. 

He is familiar with that book. That book is familiar to him. He fought with 
the Philistines ; or against. This is foreign from the subject; or to. He is fond of 
the child. He has great fondness for the child. The house was founded on a rock. 
He wishes to be free from his obligations ; sometimes of. They are friendly to us. 
She frowned upon him ; sometimes AT.f It is fruitful of evil ;" sometimes in. 

He will be glad of our success ; sometimes at or with. J I am grateful to you for 
this favor. Do not you grieve at this ; sometimes for. 

She hankers after flattery ; sometimes for. Take hold of him. Lay hold on him. 

He is impatient of (unable to bear) contradiction. To be impatient (fretful) at the 
death of a person. He is impatient (anxious) for power. A forest so dense as to be 
impenetrable to the sun ; sometimes by. That leather is impervious to water. That 
lofty peak is inaccessible to man. Silver incorporated (in one mass) with gold. The 



* " He is au fait of these matters ;" not in or with. In French au fait is followed 
by de, of. " II est au fait de ces choses " — " He is up to the fact (thorough knowledge) 
of these things." 

t At must be used before a word denoting the cause of the frowning; as, "Our 
graver business frowns at this levity." — Shakespeare. 

{"Not a courtier hath a heart that is not glad at the thing they scowl at."— 
Shakespeare. " The Tyrian glad with sight of hostile blood."— Dryden. 



238 SYNTAX. 

Romans incorporated the conquered into their own community; sometimes in; as, 
"Incorporate two in one."— Shakespeare, Inculcate this truth on their minds. He 
indulges himself with a glass of wine (instrument with which he indulges himself). 
He indulges himself in sloth (state, condition, quality).- The feeble old, indulgent of 
(prone to indulge) their ease. He is very indulgent to his children; sometimes 
toward or towards; as, "Most indulgent towards their children." — Bacon. The 
state of the weather has great influence on our feelings. She has no influence over 
her son; she can not induce him to withdraw from his vicious companions. Some 
one who has influence with him may persuade him to give you the office. He was 
initiated into the club. To initiate his pupil in (instruct him in the rudiments of) 
any part of learning ; sometimes into. He made an inroad into the country. He is 
insensible to (not affected by) her kindness. He is insensible or (destitute of the 
feeling of) shame. He insinuated himself into the king's favor. It will bear the 
keenest inspection (close examination) into its truth. His inspection (superintendence) 
over us. He was introduced into the drawing-room and there introduced to the 
family. I hope I do n't intrude upon you. He intruded himself into our company. 
They invested him with a purple robe ; or in. 

He is very liberal to the poor. She is liberal of promises ; sometimes in ; as, "I 
see, sir, you are liberal in offers." — Shakespeare. He longs for his native hills ; or 
after. He lives in Lisbon ; sometimes AT.f 

If I had been married to him. He has my good will to marry (intransitive) with 
Nan Page. 

He was named after his father ; sometimes for. You have need of rest. 

I am much obliged to you for this favor.J " We have perpetual occasion of each 
other's assistance." — Swift. "Of which they may have occasion." — Dryden. This 
quarrel originated in a trifling misunderstanding. 

Come and partake of my humble fare ; sometimes in. Let me participate in 
your pleasure; sometimes of. He has a partiality to such studies. He penetrated 
into the heart of the country. The book was placed in his hands ; not into. He 
plays at quoits. The field was planted with corn ; not to. He plunged into the 
water. He has been pondering on it for an hour. He was predisposed to the disease. 

-Johnson says, " If the matter of indulgence be a single thing, it has with before 
it; if it be a habit, it has in; as, " He indulged himself with a draught of wine," and 
" He indulged himself in shameful drunkenness." This is quoted with approval by 
Worcester and Webster. That Johnson does not give the true distinction is shown 
by his quotation from Locke : "A mother was wont to indulge (in the habit of in- 
dulging) her daughters with dogs, squirrels, or birds." And we may say, " He is in 
the habit of indulging himself with a glass of wine at dinner." 

f One who thinks of any city as merely a point, as it were, will speak of a person's 
living at that city; but if by visiting the city, by examining plans and views, or by 
any other means he gains some knowledge of the interior, the same person will 
speak of a person's living in that city. Whatever place presents itself to the mind 
as having an interior will suggest the employment of in. One who is familiar with 
even a small village will say that a person lives in that village. No one would say, 
" I saw him at Lisbon ;" for one who has been in any city naturally thinks of it as 
having an interior. " The court lay at Windsor." Windsor Castle is not in the town 
of Windsor. 

J" The passive verb am obliged should not be followed by the preposition to; we 
are obliged by, not to a person." — Barfs Pract. Eng. Gram. This is a mistake arising 
from a misapprehension of the meaning of the word oblige. " I am obliged to you 
means " I am bound to you." Falstaff says, "lam bound to thee, reverend Feeble," 
using bound in the sense in which we use obliged. " To whom I have been often bound 
for no less than my life." — Shakespeare. 



PREPOSITIONS. 239 

This plan is preferable to the other. He has & prejudice against the man. He has a 
prejudice in favor of the man. He presented her with a book. He presented a book 
to her.- She has profited by your advice. She put her book on the table. He put 
his book in his pocket. {Put is seldom, place never, followed by into.) 

He questioned them on that subject. You '11 question this gentleman about me. 
Try to reconcile him to his brother— to his fate. He knew to reconcile liberality 
with prudence. I have great regard foe him. They have some regard to what is 
right. Rejoice now at this happy news ; sometimes in ; as, " I '11 after, to rejoice in 
the boy's correction."— Shakespeare. You may rely on his fidelity. He remonstrated 
against this. They bear a great resemblance to each other. He has been misinformed 
in respect to that. 

A sale by auction ; not AT.f He is skillful in drawing ; sometimes at, particularly 
before a gerund; as, "Will Vafer is skillful at finding out the ridiculous side of a 
thing."— Tatler. She smiled on his efforts (looked favorably on them). She smiled 
at his efforts (did not look favorably on them). Be not solicitous about the future. 
He is solicitous for an office (something to be obtained). " Shall we sow the head- 
land with wheat? With red wheat, Davy."— Shakespeare. Not to. Strive against 
temptation. Strive for the truth. I will strive with things impossible. Let us not 
strive about these unimportant matters. He was surrounded by soldiers, who took 
him prisoner. He was surrounded with soldiers, who defended him bravely. 

When we have had a true taste of (actual enjoyment) the pleasures of virtue we 
can have no taste for (capacity for enjoyment) those of vice. He united (transitive) 
himself to them. They united (intransitive) with him in the petition. The hatchet 
will be useful to us. That is useful for preserving fruit (object, end). That is useful 
in preserving fruit (action). 

Be not weary in well doing. Stiff and weary with long travel. He was weary of 
his wretched life. 

7. Between and betwixt refer to two, among to more than two ; as, " He divided his 
books between his two sons ;" " He divided his books among his three sons ;" " The 
exact partition of power among king, lords, and commons." — Macaulay. 

8. In is often improperly used for into to denote entrance ; as, " He went in the 
house." " He ran in the garden " implies that he was already in the garden when he 
began to run ; " He ran into the garden " implies that he was out of the garden when 
he began to run. 

9. To denote the separation of any thing into parts into, to, and in are used. Into 
regards the state of separation as something that may be entered into ; to regards 

*The verb present sometimes means make a present (or presents) to; as, "Thou 
spendest thy time in waiting upon such a great one and thy estate in presenting 
him." — South. The word is used in this sense when we say, " He presented her with 
a book," book denoting the instrument with which the presenting was done. Though 
some have objected to this form, it is rather better than the form " He presented a 
book to her," being less liable to be ambiguous. When Petruchio says, " I do present 
you with a man of mine," he is nnderstood to be making a present ; but " I do present 
a man of mine to you" might denote merely a formal introduction. 

fSale by auction (by increasing), so called from the fact that each successive 
bidder increases the price offered, is a particular mode by which goods are disposed 
of, as by barter denotes another mode. "Goods sold by auction." — Johnson. "Such 
is the sale by auction." — Beattie. "In America the more prevalent expression has 
been ' sales at auction,' as if referring to the place where they are made. In England 
the form has always been ' sales by auction,' i. e., by an increase of bids (Lat. auctione). 
This latter form is more correct, and is now coming into use in some of our leading 
newspapers." — Webster's Dictionary. 



240 SYNTAX. 

the state as something that may be arrived at ; in regards the state as something in 
Which the thing may exist. When the number of parts or pieces is mentioned in is 
always used. "Break it into shatters." — Swift. "Break it all to pieces." — Shakespeare. 
"Break thou in pieces." — Id. "They were divided into little independent societies." — 
Locke. " Divide a minute into a thousand parts." — Shakespeare. " Divide the living 
child in two." — Eng. Bible. " We have divided in three our kingdom." — Shakespeare. 
"All to shivers dashed." — Milton. " Cut me to pieces." — Shakespeare. " My leg is cut 
in two." — Id. " Lest Paul should have been pulled in pieces." — English Bible. 

10. In some places on is improperly used for in before the names of streets ; 
as, "He lives in Pittsburg onWood Street." — Burfs Pract. Eng. Gram. "No. 137 on 
Walnut Street." — Harvey's Eng. Gram. It is said that a house can not be in a street ; 
but certainly a house can not be on a street, in contact with the upper surface of a 
street. When we say that a certain bank is in Lombard Street we mean by street the 
space distinguished by the name of the paved way that passes through it, in which 
space the bank is situated. " The situation of a building, whether it were high or 
low, in an open square or in a narrow street." — Addison. "The captain proceeded 
to withdraw his men towards their guard-house in the High Street." — Scott. " This 
was a large wooden house built in a fashion" of which there are specimens still extant 
in the streets of our older towns." — Hawthorne. " Friend Rawdon then drove on to 
Mr. Moss's mansion in Cursitor Street." — Thackeray. "The Merdle establishment 
in Harley Street." — Dickens. 

11. Avoid the gross vulgarism of using to for at to denote situation or presence ; 
as, " He is up to the house ;" "I saw them do it over to Fred's." — Rev. E. Kellogg. 

12. " I really doubt whether I shall write any more under this signature." — Junius. 
Some persons in America have attempted to introduce the barbarism " over this 
signature," supposing the preposition to be employed to point out the place of the 
signature in relation to the writing. It would not be more absurd to suppose that 
" He did it under the name of friendship" implies that the name of friendship was 
written over him. " Under his signature " implies that the signature gives character, 
attestation, authority to the writing. Those who say " over his signature " should, to 
be consistent, say " given over my hand and seal." " The first works which were 
published under my name."— Johnson. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the adjuncts and the antecedent terms : 

Our clock strikes when there is a change from hour to hour ; but no 
hammer in the horologe of Time peals through the universe when there 
is a change from era to era. — Carlyle. 

[Remark 2.] In short, he is ruined. All that they did was piety 
to this. — Ben Jonson. We are ready to try our fortunes to the last 
man. — Shakespeare. 

To thee, sweet Eden, how dark and sad 

Are the diamond turrets of Shadukiam! — Moore. 

[Rem. 3.] Now shake from out thy fruitful breast the seeds 
Of envy, discord, and of cruel deeds. — Dryden. 

2. Correct the errors: 

[Remark 6.] There was no abatement in the disease. He was accused 
with having done this. This was well adapted for the purpose. He is 



PREPOSITIONS. 241 

an advocate of war. He agreed with my proposal. This language 
is akin with that. Austria's alienation to British interests. — British 
Quarterly Review. They made an alteration of the coat. This is 
analogous with that. He is angry at her. She has a great antipathy 
for a dog. This was appropriate for his circumstances. I arrived to 
Newport in the night. Robert and his schoolmates were ashamed at 
having called Henry a coward. — Eclectic Third Reader. 

You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving persons. — 
Swift He blushed with shame. Some of the lower animals have a 
capacity of thinking. — Prof. Whitney. He conferred a favor to them. 
Do not confide on him. The government was deficient of means to 
carry on war. I will demand it from him. He died with the measles. 
This is very different to that. My father had gone when I returned, 
and so I was disappointed in the walk I expected to take with him. 
Joseph's pronunciation is very different to yours. 

They embarked on that ship. He was enamored with the lady. 
He enjoined to them the duty of helping the poor. The tale is founded 
in truth. He is friendly toward us. He inculcated this maxim into 
the mind of his son. He was initiated in the society. The enemy 
made an inroad in the country. He is insensible to shame. She 
insinuated herself in the queen's favor. You have need for recreation. 
You have done me a great favor, and I am much obliged by you. The 
quarrel originated from a misunderstanding. She has a partiality for 
such persons. He placed the books into their hands. The rat plunged 
in the river. The field was planted to cotton. He had a prejudice to 
the woman. I have profited from your advice. He was reconciled 
with the man with whom he had quarreled. He is a man in whom you 
can not rely. To this General Badeau remonstrated. The twins have 
a great resemblance with each other. 

The property was sold at auction. He is solicitous for the future. 
Shall we sow the field to wheat? He divided the apples between John, 
James, and William. Is he a man in whom you can rely? Is he a 
man on whom you can confide? He fell in the ditch. The guests have 
gone in the dining-room. Break the stick into two. Divide the flour 
into three parts. There was not a window on the steep and crooked 
street called the Bow that was not absolutely filled with spectators. Our 
old friends the Crawleys' family-house on Great Gaunt Street. They 
came to a dirty shop-window on a dirty street. They are planting corn 
up to Mr. Robinson's. He is up to home. This remarkable story is said 
to be founded in undoubted facts. He lives down to Mr. Randolph's. 
An article over his own signature was published in the papers. Given 
over my hand and seal this first day of August. He has a very hand- 
some house on Bedford Square. 

21 



242 SYNTAX. 



RULE XII. 

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs; as, "He 
spoke distinctly;" "She is extremely cautious;" "I know him 
too well." 

Remarks.— 1. For adverbs modifying nouns see Remark 4, p. 145. Adverbs 
sometimes modify abstract nouns expressing action or being; as, " I '11 break with 
your young wives of your departure hence.'''' — Shakespeare. "Owen Glendower's 
absence thence."— Id. "His presence there would be of great service." For from 
afar, etc., see Remark 15, p. 147. For after, before, etc., with propositions, see Rule 
VI, Rem. 4. For the adverbs yet, also, etc., see Remark 10, p. 154. 

2. The modified word is sometimes omitted ; as, "We in vain seek for a remnant 
of the valor [which was] once the terror of the world." — Cha?nbers. " Finally [I say] 
the war has begun." "Up, Guards, and at them."— Wellington. Here spring or some 
such word is understood. " No remains of Grecian paintings have been preserved, 
[which has happened] unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity." Such passages are 
usually arranged in an inverted order ; as, "Unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity, 
no remains," etc. 

3. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs ; as, "If with your inferiors, speak 
no coarser than usual ; if with your superiors, no finery Here coarser and finer are 
intended to denote the manner of speaking, and they should be changed to more 
coarsely and more finely. " Her aged lover made her presents, but she hated him all 
the same.'" — R. G. White. Here the adjective same is improperly used to modify the 
verb hated. One gentleman meeting another said, " How are you ?" " I am tolerable," 
replied the other; "how are you?" "I am endurable too," was the answer. The 
gentleman used tolerable for tolerably well. 

4. Poets sometimes take the license of using adjectives for adverbs ; as, "Swift 
fly the years." — Fope. 

5. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives; as, "He arrived safely" for "He 
arrived safe." {See p. 219.) 

Above is sometimes used as an adjective, there being an ellipsis of mentioned, 
made, cited, or quoted; as, "The above [mentioned] statement." Then is sometimes 
used elliptically for then existing; as, "In his then [existing] situation."— Johnson. 

6. No before a noun is an adjective ; as, "No man saw it." No is sometimes an 
adverb modifying an adjective in the comparative degree ; as, " She is no wiser than 
he." Here no is used for not. 

No is sometimes used for not after whether, if the verb is omitted ; as, " Whether 
they will walk in my law or no"— English Bible. This form has been much censured 
by grammarians ; but it is used by good writers ; as, " La Bruyere has often painted 
single persons ; whether accurately or no we can not at this time determine." — 
Hallam. "Whether a war for the propagation of Christianity be lawful or no." — Bacon. 
" Resolve whether you will or no." — Shakespeare. 

For no in the answer to a question see Remark 9, p. 146. 

7. But has come to be used in the sense of only; as, " Our light affliction, which 
is but for a moment." The original form is "which is not but (be out) for a moment." 
The use of but in the sense of only is confined to constructions in which not has been 
omitted. Other negatives are expressed with but, and then but has its proper mean- 
ing; as, " No one but a villain would do so." With never it has its proper meaning; 
as, "A person I never saw but twice." — Bulwer. 

"God is light, 
And never but in unapproached light 
Dwelt from eternity." — Milton. 



ADVERBS. 243 

Some, from mistaking the meaning of but, avoid this construction and say, for 
instance, "A person I never saw more than once." 

8. In affirming equality as is used with the adjective; as, " She is as foolish as he 
is." In denying equality so is used ; as, " She is not so foolish as he is." 

9. Among vulgar errors with respect to adverbs may be mentioned — 

(a) The use of most for almost; as, " He was most suffocated by the smoke." 

(b) The use of way for away; as, " He lives way up the hill." 

(c) The use of like for as or as if; as, " Read like (as) he does ;" " She reads it like 
(as if) she did not understand it." Do not use the adverb like if you can not insert the 
preposition to after it. " Read like [to] him " is correct. (See p. 177.) 

(d) The use of directly for as soon as; as, " She went out directly he came in." 

(e) The use of illy for the adverb ill; as, " He is illy able to bear the loss." 

(/) The use of how or how that for that; as, "He said how he had seen them last 
night ;" " He said how that he bad seen them last night." 

(g) The joining of the adverb ever to an interrogative pronoun, making what is in 
appearance, but not in sense, a compound relative pronoun ; as, " Whoever would 
have thought it?" instead of " Who would ever have thought it?" In England par- 
ticularly this vulgarism is becoming very common among slipshod writers. 

(h) The use of such vulgarisms as mighty fine for very fine, awful ugly for 
extremely ugly. 

(i) The use of two negatives to express a negation; as, " I did not eat nothing'''' 
(no thing) for "I did not eat any thing" or "I ate nothing." "I did not eat 
nothing" denies that I ate nothing and implies that I ate something. 

10. Adverbs should be placed in such a way as to show clearly what words they 
are intended to modify. The same principle applies to adjuncts and other modifying 
expressions. 

" In the proper disposition of words the sound carefully requires to be consulted 
as well as the sense." The adverb carefully is intended to modify consulted, and it 
should be placed immediately before that word. 

" The sublime Longinus in somewhat a later period preserved the spirit of 
ancient Athens."— Gibbon. "In a somewhat later period." 

"Though some of the European rulers may be females, they may be correctly 
classified under the denomination of kings."— Dean Alford. This means that the 
rulers may be classified in a correct manner ; but the writer intended to say that it 
would be correct to classify them as kings, and he should have said, " They may 
correctly be classified." Correctly modifies may. 

" He might have easily caught the fox." Easily is intended to modify might, and 
it should be placed next to it. " He might easily have caught the fox." 

" Every one'that begs is not poor." By the position of not this sentence is made 
to affirm that no beggar is poor. Not should be placed before every. " Not every 
one that begs is poor." 

" When we merely speak of numbers the verb is better singular."— Dean Alford. 
" When we speak of numbers merely." 

" The floor had been just washed."— Rev. J. G. Wood. This should be " The floor 
had just been washed." Just is an adverb of time, and in the compound tense had 
been washed it should be placed next to that part, had, which denotes the time. In 
" The floor had just been thoroughly washed" thoroughly is properly placed next to 
another part of the compound tense. 

"His Majesty was only shaved twice a week." — Swift. Only what? Not only 
shaved, but only twice a week. " In a large district he only found two carts."— fine's 
Eng. Lit. Only what? Only two carts. "This verb is only used in the indicative 
mood."— Mason's English Gram. Here should be " only in the indicative mood " or 
"in the indicative mood only." "George Sand has only celebrated one passion."— 



244 SYNTAX. 

Taine's Eng. Lit. Only what? Only one passion. "The termination of the pos- 
sessive case is only affixed to the last of the names." — Mason's Eng. Gram. Here 
should be " only to the last " or " to the last only." 

Alone (for only) is often misplaced; as, "Decorations and costumes of great 
splendor, of which the mythological paintings of Rubens can alone give an idea." — 
Taine's Eng. Lit. This means that the mythological paintings of Rubens can by 
themselves give an idea of these decorations and costumes ; but the writer intended 
to assert that nothing but these paintings can give an idea of these decorations and 
costumes, and he should have said, " Decorations and costumes of great splendor, 
of which only the mythological paintings of Rubens can give an idea." 

For the position of not before infinitives and participles see pp. 103, 104. 

11. The adverb enough should always follow the adjective or adverb which it 
modifies ; as, " He spoke in a tone loud enough to be heard by all." 

12. It is generally inelegant to place an adverb between to and the simple form 
of the infinitive; as, "He endeavored to faithfully perform his duty." This should 
be "He endeavored to perform his duty faithfully" or " He endeavored faithfully to 
perform his duty." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the adverbs and the words modified : 

Now came still evening on. Never can she be more happy. She 
was most gaudily dressed. The two friends were then walking rapidly 
down a very steep hill. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. Often 
have I seen them walking together. 

[Kemark 2.] I learned this from a Mr. Thomson, formerly a citizen 
of Mobile. Have you ever seen him? Never. Have you ever spoken 
to her? No. On, Stanley, on! 

[Kemark 6.] No villain should enter here. She is no better than 
he is. No more, sweet Hamlet ! No offer could be more acceptable. 
I do not know whether they are out or no. — Byron. Can I make men 
live, whether they will or no? — Shakespeare. 

2. Correct the errors : 

[Kemark 3.] He spoke clear and distinct. She walks graceful. 
The soldiers acted braver than the officer. He lives best who acts the 
noblest. The words nearest connected. — Dean Alford. A tolerable 
good fire. — Scott. He writes beautiful. She is a remarkable handsome 
girl. He does his work good. 

[Kemark 5.] She can not look gracefully in that dress. This con- 
struction sounds harshly. He makes often mention of those friends. 
This infinitive stands independently of the other words in the sentence. 

[Kemark 8.] She is so timid as he is. She is not as timid as he is. 

[Kemark 9.] The fire is most out. I have most finished my exer- 
cise. He walks like you do. He has gone way to the Kocky Mountains. 
It seemed like the wind would blow the house down. Directly I receive 
the letter I will go. It illy becomes him to talk so. He said how he 
had been badly treated. Whoever can understand him? That girl is 



CONJUNCTIONS. 245 

mighty weak. That apple is awful sour. I don't need no help. I 
can't find no paper. Does he never drink nothing? I can not see to 
write no more. 

[Kemark 10.] We must not expect to find study agreeable always. 
We should not be overcome by present events totally. We always 
should prefer our duty to our pleasure. They seemed to be nearly 
dressed alike. He made rather a short stay. The floor has thoroughly 
been swept. Every one that boasts of riches is not rich. All that 
glitters is not gold. The floor has been not washed. He can be cer- 
tainly elected. He can triumphantly be elected. 

Wanted a young man to take care of some horses, of a religious 
turn of mind. The following verses were written by a young man who 
has long lain in the grave, for his own amusement. At that time I 
wished some one would hang me a hundred times. A public dinner 
was given to the inhabitants of roast-beef and plum-pudding. He rode 
to town and drove twelve cows on horseback. She washed the plates 
with her old clothes, and the tears in her eyes. [With her old clothes 
on her and the tears in her eyes, she washed the plates.] The beaux 
of that day used the abominable art of painting their faces, as well as 
the women. — /. Disraeli. These "shrieks," as they have been called 
[exclamation-points], have been scattered up and down the page by 
compositors without any mercy. — Dean Alford. [Have been, without 
any mercy, scattered up and down the page.] 

We do not admit that a man only is an artist, and nothing else. — 
Tainds Eng. Lit. An article should only be used once before a complex 
description of one and the same object. — Masoris Eng. Gram. The 
grotesque characters, who are only introduced to fill up and to excite 
laughter. — Taine's Eng. Lit. The infinitive mood and the participles 
of this verb are only used when it has the stronger of its two senses. — 
Mason 1 s Eng. Gram. 

[Kemark 11.] He is not enough busy. You are too impassioned, 
and not enough inquisitive. — Taints Eng. Lit. 

[Kemark 12.] They are accustomed to carefully study their lessons. 
He does not like to often do it. 

KULE XIII. 

Conjunctions connect propositions or similar parts of propo- 
sitions. 

Remarks.— 1. For illustrations and explanations see the etymology of con- 
junctions, pp. 151, 152, 155. 

2. With both. ..and, either. ..or, and neither. ..nor the parts connected should, as 
nearly as possible, correspond in form ; as, "A position assailed with equal fury 



246 SYNTAX. 

by all who were zealous either for the new or for the old opinions." — Macaulay. Here 
" for the old opinions " corresponds to " for the new [opinions]." " For either the 
new or the old opinions " would also preserve the correspondence. But " either for 
the new or the old opinions " destroys the correspondence. 

3. Or and nor are sometimes used by poets for either and neither ; as, "Or by the 
lazy Scheldt or wandering Po."— Goldsmith. " I received nor rhyme nor reason."— 
Spenser. 

4. It is sometimes the case that a word or a collection of words common to two 
connected passages is expressed only once ; as, " This always has been, and it always 
will be admired." Here admired is common to has been and will be (has been ad- 
mired, will be admired). But "This always has, and always will be admired" is 
not correct, because be admired is not common to the connected expressions (has be 
admired). " I always have, and always will endeavor to bring pleasure with me." — 
Scott. Endeavor does not belong to the first of the connected expressions. " I 
atways have endeavored, and always will endeavor to bring pleasure with me." 
Here " to bring pleasure with me " is common to the two expressions. " Florence 
is more beloved, but not so much admired as Margaret" should be " Florence is 
more beloved than Margaret, but not so much admired [as Margaret]." 

5. After a negative which of the two conjunctions or and nor should be used to 
connect? Grammarians have differed much about this matter ; some, as Priestley 
and Murray, saying that "or or nor may, either of them, be used with nearly equal 
propriety." 

Nor should be used after neither or nor. The following sentence is incorrect : 
"It is neither acid or alkaline, it neither supports combustion or burns." — Wells' s 
Chemistry. 

After negatives in general the speaker's choice will naturally be determined by 
the way in which the connected things present themselves to his mind. If they 
present themselves together, as if they were parts of one thing to be denied, he will 
naturally regard the negative as modifying the w T hole expression, and he will connect 
the parts by or ; as, " Rome was not built in a day or destroyed in a day." Here the 
influence of not is felt through the wiiole expression. 

But if the second of the connected things presents itself as an addition to the 
first, the speaker will naturally use nor; as, "Rome was not built in a day, nor 
destroyed in a day." Here not modifies only the first part, and that which is added 
as a kind of second thought requires a negative. " Do not think they have any 
mysterious goodness nor occult sublimity." — Ruskin. Nor is incorrect. What we 
are not to think is that they have any mysterious goodness or occult sublimity. 

6. But as a conjunction generally connects propositions ; as, " I go, but I return ;" 
" He spoke to the mob, but I could not hear him." * 

7. Nothing but conjunctions should be regarded as conjunctions.! 

•'-But as thus used has a meaning so different from that which it has in such 
expressions as "none be left but he and I" that Home Tooke and others have 
assigned to it a different origin, deriving it from the Anglo-Saxon verb botan, to boot, 
to add. Others deny that there is a verb botan, saying that the verb from which 
to boot is derived is betan. Why may not but in this sense be derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon bute, both? Bute signifies but as well as both. The conjunction or has 
the same origin as other. " He will come himself or send some one " etymologically 
means " He will come himself, other he will send some one." The other thing is 
he will send some one. " I go, but (both) I return." I do both. " I can not go, but 
I will send." Both things are true. 

f Not only and but also are by some classified as " correlative conjunctions." This 
classification is one of the most remarkable productions of what may be called the 
huddling system. Not, only, and also are adverbs, each having a complete signifi- 



CONJUNCTIONS. 247 

For for this reason, in addition, etc., see Remark 8, p. 154. For in as much as, as 
well as, etc., see Remark 9, p. 154. For yet, also, still, etc., see Remark 10, p. 154. 

Than eoriDects, but it connects as a conjunctive adverb. (See Remark 17, p. 148.) 

Properly speaking, that is never a conjunction. Its office is described by calling 
it the article of the noun-proposition. (See foot-note, p. 206.) " That he is idle is 
true." Here that can not be said to connect ; it serves merely to introduce the noun- 
proposition, and this is its office whether the noun-proposition is used as subject, 
as object, as predicate-nominative, or as noun in apposition. (See " Noun-proposi- 
tions," p. 170.) An adjunct-proposition introduced by it is a noun-proposition, the 
implied preposition giving the proposition its adjunct character ; as, " We eat [for] 
that we may live." 

That is sometimes used as an adverb; as, "Now that (when) all women of 
condition are well educated we hear no more of these apprehensions." — Coleridge. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the connectives and the things connected: 

The dog in the manger would neither eat hay himself nor suffer 
the ox to eat it. John the Baptist came neither eating oread nor 
drinking wine. Though he became poor, he remained honest. A wise 
son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his 
mother. I will take it, in as much as it is the best you can offer. She 
sings as well as plays.* I forgive you, unnatural though you are. 

2. Correct the errors : 

[Kemark 2.] I neither requested Jane nor Mary to go. Either 
you saw him or did not see him. Almost every noble quality owns 
Temperance either for its parent or its nurse. 

[Kemark 4.] Such works always have, and always will be read. 
He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his com- 
panion. This preface may serve for almost any book that has, or ever 
shall be published. The intentions of these philosophers might and 
probably were good. 

[Remark 5.] He did not think the minutes lagged too slow nor 
flew too fast. The water is neither cold or hot. I have neither paper, 
pen, or ink. 

cation of its own ; but the classification mentioned makes each of these words 
nothing but an ingredient in a kind of grammatical pot-pourri. " He only preached 
this doctrine ; he did not practise it." Only, adverb modifying preached. " He not 
only (merely) preached this doctrine, but he also practised it." Only, adverb modi- 
fying preached; not, adverb modifying only; but, conjunction ; also, adverb modifying 
practised. " He did not only preach," etc. Here not modifies did, and only modifies 
the infinitive preach. 

* " She sings as well as she plays." By the omission of the subject of the second 
verb a different meaning is given to the adverb well — " she sings as truly as she 
plays." 



248 SYNTAX. 

KTJLE XIV. 

Interjections have no grammatical connection with other 
words. 

Remark. — Ah and O (oh) are sometimes used with the objective me; as, "Ah 
me/" " O me/" But it is not the interjection that causes me to be in the objective ; 
for the objective me may be used without the interjection ; as, " Me miserable ! which 
way shall I fly infinite wrath ?"— Milton. Me in such passages is an independent 
objective. 

For such constructions as "O that I were as in months past!" "O for a closer 
walk with God!" in which the interjection is used as what may be called a pro- 
proposition, see Remark 4, p. 156. 

EXERCISES. 

O sweet angel! Alas! he has left us! O! what a rapturous cry! 
O for a spark of Allan's glee ! 

Miscellaneous Remarks. 

1. The compound personal pronoun myself is often improperly used for the 
simple pronoun I; as, "Jane and myself went,'''' instead of "Jane and 7 went." 

Those who use myself in this way think that by avoiding the use of I they avoid 
egotism; but egotism consists in improperly thrusting one's self forward, not in 
the words employed. When it is proper for a person to speak of himself at all it 
is proper for him to use the honest I. Always say what you mean ; if you mean I, 
say I. To avoid the unemphatic I by using the emphatic myself is much like avoid- 
ing a shower by jumping into the river. 

2. Some say that in a descriptive relative proposition that should always be used, 
not who or which; as, " The boy that studies will learn." But it is equally correct to 
say, " The boy who studies will learn." The possessive whose and the objective 
whom are used in such propositions, and there is no valid objection to the use of the 
nominative. 

3. When a relative proposition is to convey an additional idea who or which, not 
that, must be used ; as, " He came to the town Cirta, which he immediately besieged." 
Here the relative proposition is employed, not to describe the town, but to express 
an additional idea, which being equivalent to and it (and he immediately besieged it). 

4. That is used in preference to who or which in the following cases : (a) After 
adjectives in the superlative degree; as, "Charles XII. was one of the greatest 
madmen that the world ever saw." (b) After same, very, and all; as, "He is the 
same man that I saw before ;" "He is the very boy that did the mischief;" " It was 
all that he could do." (c) After who; as, "Who that knows him would say this?" 
(d) When the relative refers to both persons and things; as, "The men and cities 
that he saw." 

5. That should not be interchanged with who or which; as, "He is a man that is 
ready to make promises and who never performs them." Who should be that, or 
that should be who. 

6. In modern speech thou and you belong to different styles, and they should not 
be interchanged ; as, 

But the rose was awake all night for your sake, 

Knowing your promise to me; 
The lilies and roses were all awake ; 

They sighed for the dawn and thee. — Tennyson. 
Here thee is manifestly lugged in merely because it rhymes with me. 



MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS. 249 

7. A relative proposition intended to modify the subject should not be placed 
after a noun in the predicate, if this position would produce ambiguity or the 
appearance of ambiguity ; as, " He should not attempt to teach a boy that is not 
fond of learning." " I am the man who command you " should be " I who command 
you am the man."' In " I am the man who commands you " the relative proposition 
modifies man. " Then men frowned at stage-plays who smiled at massacres." Here 
the position causes no ambiguity. 

8. Than whom is an anomalous expression, which may have had its origin in an 
incorrect translation of the Latin ablative quo. 

9. General truths, real or alleged, are expressed by the present tense, no matter 
what may be the tense of the verb with which the proposition is connected ; as, " He 
believed that there is but one god." This principle is often violated; as, "The 
missionary endeavored to inculcate the truth that there was but one god." — Reade. 
"I had never known before how short life really was." — Dickens. "We then fell 
into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility. The General 
maintained that there was not ; Dr. Johnson maintained that there was." — Boswell. 

10. Such passages as the following contain still greater errors ; because, though 
the verbs in the principal propositions are past in form, they are present in sense : 
"What is the law? I wish I knew what the law really was." — Scott. " It might be 
supposed at first sight that this way of speaking was indefensible." — Dean Alford. 
" I should say there was a strong connection between the Scottish temperament and 
humor." — Dean Ramsay. 

11. When a speaker uses the present tense in relating what is past he is supposed 
to do so merely because the events seem to be passing before him. {See Remark 3, 
p. 87.) It is inconsistent to use the past tense in connection with such a present ; as, 
" The officer rushes upon him and struck him with his sword." The following passage 
is faulty: g ut now secure the painted vessel glides, 

The sunbeams trembling on the floating tides; 
While melting music steals upon the sky, 
And softened sounds along the waters die; 
Smooth flow the waves, the zephyrs gently play, 
Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay. — Pope. 

'12. The past tense is sometimes improperly used for might, should, or would, with 
the infinitive ; as, " King John, feeling that in any case, whatever was done after- 
ward, it would be a satisfaction to his mind to have those handsome eyes burnt 
out." Should be or might be, not was. (See Remark 12, p. 88.) 

13. Should we say "To-morrow is Wednesday" or "To-morrow will be Wednes- 
day " ? As we wish to express an abstract truth rather than a future event, the first 
form seems preferable. Shakespeare uses this form : "Wednesday is to-morrow." — 
Romeo and Juliet. " To-morrow is the wedding-day." — Taming of the Shrew. "Is not 
to-morrow, boy, the ides of March?"— Julius Csesar. " To-morrow is the joyful day, 
Audrey."— As You Like It " To-morrow is St. Crispian."— Henry V. " To-morrow is 
her birth -day." — Pericles. 

14. "A proper selection of faulty composition is more instructive than any rules 
and examples." Some assert that in the latter part of such sentences as this the 
verb should be expressed, because there is required a form different from that which 
is used in the other part; as, "A proper selection of faulty composition is more 
instructive than are any rules and examples." Strict adherence to such a rule as 
this would make the style intolerably stiff and pedantic. There is no foundation for 
such a rule in either reason or usage. The assertion that if the verb is not expressed 
in the latter part of the sentence it is understood as it appears in the former part is 
absurd. The verb is understood in its proper form. 

15. One of the worst of vulgarisms is the use of had have for had in the past-perfect 
tense ; as, " Oh, Burgo, hadst thou not have been a very child I"— A. Trollope. 



250 SYNTAX. 

16. In conditions or suppositions expressing uncertainty whether the thing sup- 
posed does or does not exist and relating to present time the indicative mood is used ; 
as, " If he has the money, he will pay it." If the thing supposed is something that 
may occur in future time, shall or should with the infinitive is used ; as, " If he should 
have the money to-morrow, he will pay it." 

Shall and should are sometimes omitted; as, "If he have the money." (See 
Eemark 3, p. 99.) Here we have the so-called " present subjunctive," which never 
denotes present time. It is generally better to express shall or should. The indicative 
present is often used in expressing suppositions of this kind ; as, " If he has the 
money to-morrow." * 

17. To express a supposition implying that the thing supposed does not exist and 
referring to present time we employ the past tense, and to express the conclusion 
might, could, would, or should with the imperfect infinitive ; as, " If he had the money, 
he would pay it." 

To express a supposition referring to past time we employ the past-perfect 
tense, and to express the conclusion might, could, would, or should with the perfect 
infinitive ; as, " If he had had the money, he would have paid it." 

18. The singular forms were and wert refer to present time only ; as, " He looks as 
if he were an honest man." (See Remark 10, p. 88.) It is not correct to say, "He 
looked as if he were an honest man." " He looked as if he had been an honest man " 
might mean that his appearance indicated that before that time he had been an 
honest man, not that he was an honest man at that time. It is best in such cases 
to use the simple past tense ; as, "He treated one or two remark's she made as if she 
was an idiot." — Thackeray. 

The following are instances of the incorrect use of the conditional form : " Being 
doubtful of his way, he inquired if he were on the right way to Dunkeld." — Dean 
Ramsay. " I can not tell whether I were more pleased or mortified to observe that 
the smaller birds did not appear to be at all afraid of me." — Swift. "Before the 
bonnet -maker could determine whether it were better to stand or fly two active 
young men seized upon him." — Scott. 

19. Was is sometimes improperly used for were; as, "I wish I was where Anna 
lies."— Gifford. 

Correct the errors . EXERCISES. 

[Eemark 1.] He gave the "book to John and myself. You or 
myself must do it. 

[Remark 3.] He came to the city of Calais, that immediately 
opened the gates to him. 

[Remark 4.] It is the best which can be obtained. It is the same 
horse which you saw yesterday. It was all which he had to give. 
The man and the dog which we saw have disappeared. Who who 
has any regard for his character would act thus ? 

[Remark 5.] The lady that taught you and who was so kind to 
you has left us. 

[Remark 6.] O Abudah ! for four days thou hast slept upon this 
sofa, and we thought you were dead. — Tales of the Genii. 



*"It has become equally allowable to write if he loves and if he love, even in 
careful and elegant styles of composition, while the latter is but very rarely heard 
in colloquial discourse." — Whitney's Language and the Study of Language, p. 87. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 251 

[Remark 7.] He should not keep a carriage that has to stay in the 
house. He needs no spectacles that can not see. 

[Remark 9.] Master Charles Bates, appalled by Sikes's crime, fell 
into a train of reflection whether an honest life was not, after all, the 
best. Arriving at the conclusion that it certainly was, he turned his 
back upon the scenes of his past life — Dickens. Aristotle and his fol- 
lowers contended that poetry was purely an imitative art, whilst others 
have maintained that it was purely a creative one. In more modern 
times some have it that fiction constituted its essence and spirit, while 
others again have held that truth was its animating principle. 

[Remark 10.] It might be supposed that his conduct was irre- 
proachable; but it is not. I wish I could hear what he was saying. 
I should say that he was an honest man. I do not know him well, but 
I should think he was a man of truth. It might be imagined that the 
labor of teaching was sufficiently irksome. No one would say that 
there was any thing particularly repugnant to the character of a gen- 
tleman in that. — Saturday Review. 

[Remark 11.] The boy hears the noise and hid himself in the 
thicket. 

[Remark 12.] A man who said ill-natured things might be a worse 
man than one who called his neighbor a fool or a liar. — Saturday 
Review. A man who made a very polite bow might be a villain. He 
requested her to repeat it again and again till he understood it. 

[Remark 15.] If I had have seen him, I would have spoken to 
him. If he had have been here, he might have seen his friend. Had 
you have been with us, our pleasure would have been much greater. 

[Remark 18.] He laid hands on Mr. Pogram as if he were taking 
his measure for a coat. — Dickens. I could not tell whether he were in 
earnest or not. It was an age of revolutions, and none ventured to 
ask whether the commission were legal or whether it were legally 
discharged. — Merivale. 

[Remark 19.] I wish I was a better scholar. I wish our merry 
friend was here. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

Rule I. — What is the rule for the subject of a finite verb? In what case is the 
subject of the infinitive? What besides nouns may be used as subjects? When is 
the subject omitted? The verb? What is said of but? Where is the place of the 
subject? Mention a sentence in which a nominative is improperly left without a 
verb. In what is this rule violated? What is said of the objective whom? Whom- 
soever? What is me in methinks? 

Rule IL— What is the rule for the predicate-nominative? Do any but finite 
verbs have predicate-nominatives? When the infinitive has a subject in what case 
should the noun in the predicate be ? What besides nouns may be used as predicate- 
nominatives? Is the predicate-nominative always placed after the verb ? Mention 



252 SYNTAX. 

some of the verbs most frequently modified by predicate-nominatives. Are the 
number and person of the predicate-nominative always the same as those of the 
subject? What is said of it as it occurs in such sentences as " It is I "? Is the form 
of the verb affected by the predicate-nominative ? Is " It is me " correct ? Why ? 

Rule III.— What is the rule for a noun used independently or absolutely ? When 
is a noun said to be used independently ? Absolutely ? What participles are some- 
times omitted? What nouns are often omitted before participles ? Give examples. 
Explain "during his life." "Pending the suit." "Notwithstanding his denial." 
" Save I alone." What is ago ? Give examples of noun-propositions used like nouns 
in the nominative absolute. What is said of " me overthrown "? 

Rule IV. — What is the rule for a noun in the possessive case? Give some 
examples in which the modified noun is omitted. Mention the pronouns with 
which the modified nouns are never expressed. Do pronouns take the apostrophe ? 
Explain " General Washington's tent." "The Duke of Wellington's army." What 
is the difference betwen "Mr. Good, the tailor's, servant" and "Mr. Good, the tailor's 
servant " ? What should not come between the possessive case and the name of the 
object possessed? Give an illustration. Explain "These are John's and Eliza's 
books." "These are John and Eliza's books." Should we say "Johnson's and 
Richardson's Dictionaries'" or "Johnson's and Richardson's Dictionary?" What is 
said of of with the objective? What should we say instead of "his son's wife's 
sister"? Instead of "the distress of the son of the king"? What noun is under- 
stood in " Thou art Freedom's now and Fame's "? What is said of the gerund with 
a noun in the possessive case ? Should we say " on the fellow's telling him " or " on 
the fellow telling him "? 

Rule V. — What is the rule for the object of a transitive verb ? Do any but finite 
verbs have objects ? What besides nouns may be objects of transitive verbs ? What 
is the usual order of arrangement ? When is this order deviated from ? What is 
said of the position of relative, interrogative, and indefinite pronouns? When is 
the object omitted? How may some verbs usually intransitive become transitive? 
What is said of it? How are transitive verbs sometimes improperly used as in- 
transitive? Give an example of a verb with two objectives. What is the second 
objective sometimes called? Mention some of the verbs used in this way. Is this 
construction apposition? Give an illustration. Explain " He gave me a book." Is 
it correct to say " I was given a book "? Why ? 

Rule VI. — What is the rule for the object of a preposition? What preposition 
is sometimes followed by the infinitive? Give examples of noun-propositions as 
objects of prepositions. What prepositions are mentioned as taking noun-proposi- 
tions as objects? What is the object of for in "This is a dangerous position for 
men to entertain "? The object of with in " Each man walks with his head in a cloud 
of poisonous flies "? The object of with in " With thee to smile upon him he is 
happy"? Give examples of the omission of the object. Of the omission of the 
preposition. Give examples of the improper omission of the preposition. What 
nouns are put in the objective without a preposition? After what adjectives is the 
preposition to omitted ? Give examples in which the preposition is placed after the 
object. What is said of such expressions as " The sap will run as long as it freezes 
nights"? Of " Where is my book at "? 

Rule VII.— What is the rule for nouns in apposition? What is said of the 
position of the noun annexed? For what purpose is a noun sometimes repeated? 
Give an example of a proposition in apposition with a noun. Of a noun in appo- 
sition with a proposition. Of a plural noun in apposition with two or more nouns 
preceding it. Of the noun in apposition placed before the other noun. Of a proper 
noun in apposition with a common noun. Of a common noun in apposition with a 
proper noun. How are the proper names of rivers commonly placed ? What is said 






QUESTIONS FOR EEVIEW. 253 

of the names of places and months ? How do we take the Christian name and the 
surname ? When may one possessive termination answer lor more than one noun? 

Rule VI1L— What is the rule for adjectives? What does this rule include? 
Must the adjective always be in the same part of the proposition with the noun ? To 
what besides nouns may adjectives belong? What is said of such expressions as 
" To be good is to be happy"? Of such expressions as " The sublime prevails over 
the beautiful "? Give examples in which the noun is omitted. In "Granting this to 
be true" to what does the participle granting belong? Where should the adjective 
enough always be placed? Where is the adjective placed when it is modified by an 
adjunct, etc.? What is said of the factitive adjective ? What is said of " Henry the 
First," etc.? What caution is given concerning the arrangement of adjectives? 
When a limiting and a qualifying adjective belong to the same noun where is the 
limiting adjective placed? Should we say "the two first stanzas" or "the first two 
stanzas"? When is it proper to say "the first two"? How does the comparative 
degree present the objects compared? The superlative degree ? When two objects 
of the same class are compared how is the comparative used ? Is the superlative 
ever used in such cases ? What must be the person and number of verbs and nouns 
connected with the adjectives each, every, either, and neither ? What is said of no joined 
to two or more singular nouns ? Is there any difference in application between each 
other and one another? To what do this and that belong? These and those? Explain 
" to make a distinction between a man and a beast." Mention some violations. For 
what is an adjective with its noun sometimes improperly used ? What is said of "all 
of his men," "both of the apples"? Of "part one," "book two," etc.? When an 
article is used with two or more adjectives belonging to the same noun is it to be 
used before each of the adjectives? Explain "He has a white and a black horse." 
" He has a white and black horse." What may sometimes be done instead of 
repeating the article ? What is said of such expressions as "A speech was made by 
Hon. John Smith"? Of such expressions as "He claimed the. title of duke"? 
Of such expressions as " He is a better poet than historian "? Of such expressions 
as "Some fifty years ago"? What caution concerning the use of some? What is 
said of such expressions as "twenty pound"? What principle decides whether we 
should use an adjective or an adverb? 

Rule IX.— What is the rule for the agreement of a verb? What is said of need? 
Of dare? What are the chief practical points? When an infinitive, a gerund, or a 
noun-proposition is the subject what must be the number and person of the verb ? 
What is said of the effect of an adjunct? Should we say, "Twice one is two" or 
" Twice one are two"? Explain " James and Edward are studious boys." Explain 
"A hue and cry was raised." Explain "Each book and paper is kept in its place." 
Explain " Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory." Explain "John, and 
James also, is here," etc. Explain "Virtue, and not riches, constitutes the happiness 
of a nation." How does the speaker regard all associated with him? By what 
plural pronoun is "you and I" represented? "George and I"? "You and I and 
George"? " Thou (you) and George"? Explain" John or James was here." Explain 
" Either thou or I am concerned." In what number must the verb be with a collective 
noun? When is the subject omitted ? Explain "as appears," "as follows." Explain 
" There is no man but know r s." Give an example in which the subject is improperly 
omitted. When a relative pronoun is the subject by what are the number and person 
of the verb determined ? 

Rule X. — What is the rule for the infinitive ? Give an example in which the 
infinitive is used as subject. As object of a transitive verb. As predicate-nominative. 
As object of a preposition. As noun in apposition. As nominative independent. As 
nominative absolute. As factitive objective. Give an example in which the infinitive 
as adjunct contains the idea of at. Of in. Of of. Of on. Of with. Of from. Of /<•,-. 



254 SYNTAX. 

Give an example in which the infinitive in the sense of a finite verb is used with a 
subject. Without a subject. What was to of the infinitive originally? Give an 
example in which to retains its original meaning. In what mood is the verb after 
may, can, might, could, would, should? After what other verbs is the simple form 
(without to) used ? Which form is used after the passive of these verbs ? Explain 
" They are not willing to do so much as listen to his story." How may we determine 
whether an objective following a transitive verb is the object of that verb or the 
subject of the infinitive following? Why is "I expected to have found him at 
home " incorrect ? " Please excuse me"? " I will try and see him"? "I can go if I 
wish to"? Is " He commenced to speak" correct? Explain " The house is building." 
{See Remark 3, p. 102.) 

Rule XI.— What is the rule for prepositions ? W T hat is the preceding word 
sometimes called? Give an example in which the antecedent term is omitted. 
How may " He came from and is now returning to France " be improved ? Give the 
proper preposition instead of those incorrectly used in the following passages : He 
was accused for having done this. This is akin with that. [The principal errors are 
presented under the head of "Correct the errors."] 

Rule XII.— What is the rule for adverbs ? Give an example in which the modi- 
fied word is omitted. Give examples of the improper use of adjectives for adverbs. 
Of adverbs for adjectives. What is no before a noun? Give examples in which no 
is used for not. How has but come to be used in the sense of only? In what sense 
is it used with never ? In affirming equality what adverb is used before the adjective ? 
In denying equality? Give an example of the improper use of most for almost. Of 
way for away. Of like for as, or as if. Of directly for as soon as. Of illy for ill. Of how 
or how that for that. Of the improper annexing of ever to an interrogative pronoun. 
Of the improper use of mighty, awful, etc. Of two negatives. How should adverbs 
be placed? Give examples of the violation of this principle. Where should the 
adverb enough be placed? What is said of placing an adverb between to and the 
simple form of the infinitive ? 

Rule XIII.— What is the rule for conjunctions ? What is said concerning the 
parts connected by both ... and, either ...or, and neither ...nor f What are sometimes 
used for either and neither? Explain " This always has been, and it always will be 
admired." What is the impropriety in "It is neither acid or alkaline"? After 
negatives in general which of the two conjunctions or and nor should be used? 
What is than? What is that? 

Rule XIV.— What is the rule for interjections ? In "Ah me !" what is me? 

What is said of "Jane and myself"? Is " The boy who studies " correct? What 
relative must be used when the proposition is to convey an additional idea? When 
is that used in preference to who or which? What is said of interchanging that with 
who or which? Of interchanging thou and you? What caution about the position of 
relative propositions? What is said of than whom? 

What is said of such expressions as "I had never known before how short 
life really was"1 Of such expressions as "The officer rushes upon him and struck 
him with his sword " ? What is said of employing the past tense to denote some- 
thing future at some past time? Should we say, "To-morrow is Wednesday" or 
"To-morrow will be Wednesday"? What is said of the use of had have for had? 
What is said of such expressions as "If he has the money, he will pay it" ? What 
is used if the thing supposed is something that may occur in future time ? Is shall 
or should always expressed? What is said of " If he had the money, he would pay 
it " ? Of " If he had had the money, he would have paid it " ? What is said of such 
expressions as " He looked as if he were an honest man " ? Of " He inquired if he 
were on the right way " ? Give an example of the improper use of was for were. 



THE PERIOD. 255 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation treats of the points and marks used in written 
language. 

The word punctuation is derived from the Latin punctum, 
a point. 

The chief use of the points is to show more clearly the 
relation between the different parts of the discourse. 

The principal points are the period (.), the comma (,), 
the semicolon (;), and the colon (:). 

The general principles regulating the use of these chief points may 
be stated thus : 

The period separates sentences; the comma separates the proposi- 
tions of a compound or a complex sentence; the semicolon separates 
from the principal proposition something not so closely connected with 
it as are portions set off by the comma; the colon separates something 
which is not formally connected with the preceding part of the sentence. 

Remarks. — 1. These points should not be regarded as intended to denote pauses. 
They are grammatical, not elocutionary points. As they point out the relation which 
the different parts of the discourse sustain to each other, they assist the reader in 
making the proper pauses ; but this should be regarded as merely a secondary use, 
with which grammar has nothing to do. A point is sometimes to be used where no 
pause is to be made; as in yes, sir, and no, sir; and a pause is often to be made 
where no point is admissible; as, "Prosperity gains friends, but adversity tries 
them." Here a pause must be made after prosperity and after adversity; but no 
point is admissible. 

2. In the use of the points there is great diversity, which has arisen chiefly from 
confounding two distinct things. If the points are regarded in their proper char- 
acter, as merely indicating the relations existing between the* different parts of the 
discourse, the subject is greatly simplified. 

" The respect which we justly feel for Clarendon as a writer must not blind us to 
the faults which he committed as a statesman."— Macaulay. One who regards the 
points as intended to denote pauses would place a comma after writer, a pause being 
necessary in reading; but one who regards only the relation of the parts of the 
sentence would insert no point, the grammatical relation between the subject and 
the predicate being too intimate to admit of separation. 

THE PEEIOD. 

The period marks the close of a sentence; as, "Fear God. 
Honor the king. Have charity toward all men." 

Remarks. — 1. As every part of a continuous discourse is connected with the 
other parts, it is sometimes difficult to decide where the separation is such as to 



256 PUNCTUATION, 

require to be marked by the period. Two things which one person would regard as 
so distinct as to require to be expressed in two sentences may to another seem so 
closely connected as to require to be expressed in one sentence. When a writer is 
in^doubt as to the closeness of connection between two ideas he will of course be in 
doubt as to the point to be used. 

2. A period is sometimes placed even before conjunctions ; as, " The amount 
of treasure in the Capital did not equal the sanguine expectations that had been 
formed by the Spaniards. But the deficiency was supplied by the plunder which 
they had collected at various places on their march." — Prescott. 

3. This point is used after abbreviations ; as, "J. Smith, Esq., addressed the 
meeting." In this use the period is merely a mark of abbreviation, having nothing 
to do with the division of the discourse. The same points follow it that would be 
used if the word were written in full ; as, "An address was delivered by J. Smith, 
Esq., who was frequently applauded." If the abbreviation is at the end of a sen- 
tence, however, the same point answers to mark both the abbreviation and the close 
of the sentence. 

EXERCISES. 

Transcribe the following, inserting a period wherever required and making the 
letter after the period a capital letter: 

In a little thatched cottage near a thrifty forest lived a hard- 
working couple the husband was a fagot-maker, and the wife used 
to spend all her spare time in spinning they had only one child, a 
little daughter, who was about eight years old she was a handy little 
maid, who wished to do every thing she could to assist her mother she 
was an early riser she helped her mother in getting ready her father's 
breakfast before he went to work after breakfast she made every thing 
in the house tidy and orderly she would go on short errands for her 
mother her grandmother had made for her a little red hood the little 
red hood looked so bright and smart among the green trees that it 
could always be seen a long way off. 

No praise of Addison's style can exaggerate its merits its art is 
perfectly marvellous no change of time can render the workmanship 
obsolete his style has that nameless urbanity in which we recognize 
the perfection of manner. — Bidwer. 

As we vary our study in books, so we should vary our study in men 
among our friends and associates we should have some whose pursuits 
differ from our own nothing more conduces to liberality than facile 
intercourse with various minds the commerce of intellect loves distant 
shores. — Bulwer. 

Eustace went on deck a dark night had come on by this time 
the ship was tranquilly moving on with a fair wind few figures 
were moving on deck the officer of the watch stood on the poop. — 
Hannay. 

Kejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep 
be of the same mind one toward another mind not high things, but 
condescend to men of low estate be not wise in your own conceit 



THE COMMA. 257 

recompense to no man evil for evil provide things honest in the sight 
of all men. — English Bible. 

No genius can afford to dispense with loyalty and honor loyalty 
and honor necessitate the attention to business every man to whom 
you make a promise that you will do such and such work in such a 
time should rest assured that your word is as firm as the rock of 
Gibraltar confidence is the first principle of all business. — Bulwer. 

Punctuate the following passage so as to make it describe a bad character; 
then punctuate it so as to make it describe a good character : 

He is an old and experienced man in vice and wickedness he is 
never found to oppose the works of iniquity he delights in the downfall 
of neighbors he never rejoices in the prosperity of any of his fellow- 
creatures he is always ready to assist in destroying the peace of society 
he takes no pleasure in relieving distress he is uncommonly diligent in 
sowing disorder among his friends and acquaintances he takes no pride 
in laboring to promote the cause of morality he has been industrious in 
his work he will receive his reward. 

By being spoken as they are punctuated the following doggerel verses in "A 
Midsummer-Night's Dream" express the very opposite of the intended idea. See 
if you can punctuate them in such a way as to express the idea that the players wish 
to please the audience: 

If we offend, it is with our good will. 

That you should think we come not to offend, 

But with good-will. To show our simple skill, 

That is the true beginning of our end. 

Consider, then, we come but in despite. 

"We do not come as minding to content you, 

Our true intent is. All for your delight 

"We are not here. That you should here repent you, 

The actors are at hand, and by their show 

You .shall know all that you are like to know. 

THE COMMA* 

I. The principal use of the comma is to separate the propo- 
sitions of a compound or a complex sentence; as, "Life is 
short, and art is long;" "Phocion was poor, though he might 
have been rich;" "Phocion, though he might have been rich, 

*The word comma etymologically means something cut oft", and it formerly 
denoted the portion of the sentence cut off from the rest. It now denotes the 
point that marks the cutting off. 

22 



258 PUNCTUATION. 

was poor." In this last sentence the proposition though he might 

have been rich is cut off by a comma before and a comma after it. 

"But, though I used every exertion, I could not effect it." What 
is here cut off? 

II. As a noun-proposition performs the office of a noun (see 
p. 170), it should not be cut off from the word with which it 
is connected when a noun performing the same office would not 
be cut off. 

Therefore a noun-proposition should not be cut off when it is — 

1. Subject of a verb; as, "That he will succeed is evident." 

2. Object of a transitive verb; as, "I believe that he will succeed." 

Remark.— Noun-propositions which are the objects of such verbs as say, cry, 
exclaim, reply are cut off when they contain the words spoken ; as, " He said, ' I will 
come.'" But when the substance only is given the comma is not used; as, "He 
said that he would come." 

3. Predicate -nominative; as, "The general belief is that he will 
succeed." 

4. Object of a preposition; as, "This will depend on how it is 
done." 

III. An adjective-proposition which describes is not cut off; 
as, "The girl who is always laughing shows want of sense." 
Here who is always laughing describes the girl that shows want 
of sense. 

But if the proposition presents an additional idea, it is cut off; as, 
" He went up to a large and beautiful house, which he entered." 

" I went to California with m} T cousin who had been there before." 
"I went to California with my cousin, who had been there before." 
In the former sentence who had been there before points out what cousin 
is meant; it assumes something. In the latter sentence the same prop- 
osition is employed to assert something additional. 

"You have said something of which you ought to be ashamed." 
"You have said something, of which you ought to be ashamed." The 
latter sentence represents the saying of any thing as a thing to be 
ashamed of. 

"Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die." 
"Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers which bloom and die." 
If there were a class of flowers which do not bloom and die, it would 
be proper to omit the comma, so that the adjective-proposition should 
describe the other class. Cut off by the comma, this proposition asserts 
that all flowers bloom and die. 



THE COMMA. 259 

"When words, which naturally take the rising inflection, become 
emphatic." This punctuation represents all words as naturally taking 
the rising inflection. The same hook from which this passage is taken 
has the following: "The girls, who went to school with her, were very 
fond of her." This represents all "the girls" as going to school with 
her. The writer meant to say, " The girls who went to school with her 
were very fond of her." 

" By this scimitar, that slew the Sophy and a Persian prince, that 
won three fields of Sultan Solyman." "By this scimitar, that slew the 
Sophy and a Persian prince that won three fields of Sultan Solyman." 
The former punctuation represents the sword as having won the three 
fields; the latter represents the Persian prince as having won them. 

IV. Adjunct -propositions should not be cut off when the 
equivalent adjuncts 'should not be cut off; as, "He is anxious 
that you should succeed "=" He is anxious for your success." 

" Be virtuous that you may he happy" is an exhortation to he vir- 
tuous for the purpose of being happy. "Be virtuous, that you may be 
happy" first expresses an exhortation to be virtuous, then the result 
of being virtuous. 

"He did not go because you commanded him" asserts that the 
going was not caused by the command. "He did not go, because 
you commanded him" first denies the going, then gives the reason 
for his not going. 

"His food is sweet because he earns it before he eats it;" "His food 
is sweet, because he earns it before he eats it." What is the difference 
in meaning between these two sentences? 

"Lucy's sentiments seemed chill, because nothing had occurred to 

interest or awaken them." The author has already asserted that Lucy's 

sentiments seemed chill, and in this passage he gives the reason. Is 

the comma proper? 

Remark. — The semicolon is often employed to set off a proposition giving the 
reason. 

V. The punctuation of adverb-propositions is governed by 
the same principles that govern the punctuation of adjective- 
propositions and adjunct-propositions. When the proposition 
asserts something it is cut off; when it assumes something it is 
not cut off; as, "He was walking over the bridge, when a 
soldier met him;" "He was walking over the bridge when 
the soldier met him." The first ivhen = (( &t which time;" the 
second w/ie?i = "at the time at which." ■-.. 



260 PUNCTUATION. 

* 
" Kice acquires its greatest perfection in Asia, where it is the usual 
food of the inhabitants;" "Bice acquires its greatest perfection where 
it is the usual food of the inhabitants." Explain the difference. 

VI. The comma cuts off whatever is equivalent to a propo- 
sition; as — 

1. The nominative absolute with the words closely connected with 
it; as, "His horse being unmanageable, he dismounted." Here "his 
horse being unmanageable "=" as his horse was unmanageable." 

2. The infinitive with the words closely connected with it in such 
expressions as "To confess the truth, I was in fault." Here "to confess 
the truth "=" that I may confess the truth." 

3. An expression introduced by an adjective and equivalent to a 
proposition ; as, " The mother, happy in attending to her children, 
desired no change." Here "happy in attending to her children "= 
"because she was happy in attending to her children." 

4. Such expressions as however, no doubt, besides, unfortunately, nay, 
more, moreover, by the bye, in the first place, secondly-, in a word, well, 
why, most of which are parts of propositions of which the other words 
are omitted; as, "He made every effort; he did not, however, succeed." 
Here however is part of a proposition, "however this may be." "He 
will, no doubt, succeed." Here no doubt is part of a proposition, "there 
is no doubt." "Unfortunately, he was interrupted." Here unfortunately 
is part of a proposition, " what (or which) happened unfortunately." 

VII. The comma cuts off the nominative independent; as, 
"John, you may go to your seat;" "He of himself, poor man, 
can make nothing of it;" "Continue, my dear child, to walk 
in the path of virtue." 

VIII. When another name for an object is introduced by 
or a comma is placed before or; as, "This cage contains the 
giraffe, or camelopard." 

IX. If a noun in apposition is annexed for the purpose of 
asserting something additional, it is cut off, being in sense 
equivalent to a proposition; "A son, John, was born after his 
death." Here John is introduced in such a way as to add to 
the idea of the birth of the son an additional idea, "whose 
name was John," or "I mean John." "Hope, the balm of 
life "=" Hope, which is the balm of life." "Paul, the apostle 
of the Gentiles "=" Paul, who was the apostle of the Gentiles." 



THE COMMA. 261 

But if a noun is annexed in such a way as to express something 
assumed rather than asserted, or something forming as it were part of 
the name, it is not cut off; as, "His son John was born after his death;" 
"The Apostle Paul;" "The Emperor Augustus." 

X. When words are arranged in pairs the comma should 
separate the pairs from one another ; as, ' ' It lives in the heart 
of every Swiss, high and low, young and old, gentle and 
simple." 

XI. The comma is sometimes employed to prevent miscon- 
ception of the meaning; as, "Our sacred orators for the most 
part confine themselves to preaching on fidelity, to wives; 
probity, to men ; obedience, to children." — About This sen- 
tence, awkwardly arranged, means that the sacred orators 
preach to wives on the subject of fidelity, to men on the 
subject of probity, to children on the subject of obedience; 
without the comma, it would mean that they preach about 
fidelity to wives, probity to men, obedience to children. 

"Those that escaped being killed at once turned and fled." Here 
at once may modify either being killed or turned and fled. A comma 
after at once would show that at once modifies being killed; a comma 
before at once would show that this adjunct modifies turned and fled. 

"Other ventures he hath, squandered abroad." This passage means 
that he has other ventures, which are squandered abroad; the comma 
prevents hath from being considered an auxiliary connected with 
squandered. 

"'T is certain he could write, and cipher too." Without the comma 
too might be understood to modify write as well as cipher. 

"He is not good; he can not, therefore, be great." Without the 
comma this sentence might mean that he can not be great in conse- 
quence of not being good. 

An expression having the same relation to each of two or more 
other expressions is cut off* from them; as, "Philosophy makes us 
wiser, Christianity makes us better, men." The comma after better 
shows that men is modified by wiser as well as by better. 

XII. Where there is an ellipsis of a verb a comma may be 
placed, if without the comma there would be obscurity; as, 
" Power reminds you of weakness; permanency, of change; 
life, of death." 



262 PUNCTUATION. 

But the comma is generally unnecessary; as, "In prosperity he was 
too much elated, and in adversity too despondent;" "Plants are formed 
by culture, and men by education." 

XIII. If a conjunction is omitted between two or more 
words in the same construction, a comma is put in the place 
of the conjunction; as, " He is a plain, honest man"="He is 
a plain and honest man;" "He is a plain, honest, straight- 
forward man." 

If the conjunction is expressed between only the two last of several 
words in the same construction, the comma separates the two last as 
well as the others; as, " He is a plain, honest, and straightforward 
man." If the comma were not placed between the two last words, 
they would seem to the eye to be more closely connected with each 
other than with the preceding word. 

Remark. — When three or more words are in the same construction some sepa- 
rate them from one another, whether the conjunctions are omitted or expressed; 
as, " He is a plain, and honest, and straightforward man." But this punctuation is 
stiff, and there is no good reason for using the comma where no conjunction is 
omitted. " Light and music and high-swelling hearts." — Carlyle. " Leveret and 
quail and pheasant." — Rogers. "Hands and legs and feet." — Scott. "Light and 
gayety and hope and health and joy."— Dickens. "All courage and love and honor." — 
Thackeray. "Petted by philanthropists and statesmen and preachers." — London 
Times. "Both man and bird and beast." — Coleridge. "Agamemnon and Achilles 
and Ajax and Ulysses and Diomede and Helen." — Hare. "His wine and horses 
and play." — Tennyson. 

"East and west and south and north 
The messengers ride fast, 
And tower and town and cottage 
Have heard the trumpet's blast." — Macaulay. 

XIV. Observe that in the sentence, "He is a plain, honest 
man," no comma is placed between the last of the adjectives 
and the noun man. Neither in a compound subject should a 
comma be placed between the last of the nouns and the verb ; 
as, "Painting, poetry, and music are fine arts." 

XV. If an adverb, an adjunct, or other expression is out 
of its natural place, some cut it off by the comma; as, "To 
perseverance, every thing is possible." There is no good reason 
for this punctuation ; for, though there is a pause after the 
adjunct, the grammatical relation is not changed by the position. 
" With the fear and hatred inspired by such a tyranny contempt 



THE COMMA. 263 

was largely mingled. " — 3facaulay. "In the affair which had 
inflicted on him a calumny so odious it was clear that he had 
acted with chivalrous delicacy of honor." — Bulwer. 

XVI. The subject, however long it may be, should not be 
cut off from the predicate.* "It is not conformable to the 
principles of our government to make that vain display of 
military authority which disgusts us so much in some conti- 
nental kingdoms." — Hallam. "The first in order of time of 
the immunities acquired by the House of Commons was the 
exemption of the members and their servants from arrest on 
civil process during the session." — Pictorial Histonj of England. 
"No man who is correctly informed of the past will be disposed 
to take a morose or desponding view of the present." — Macaulay. 



, _ ...-,,, - EXERCISES. 

1. Punctuate the following : 

[I.] Crafty men contemn studies simple men admire them and wise 
men use them. They shrunk from no dangers and they feared no 
hardships. Cast out the scorner and contention shall go out. Love 
not sleep lest thou come to poverty. Though he is rich he is not 
proud. The power of the sword belonged to the prince but the power 
of the purse belonged to the nation. 

[VI.] The time of youth being precious we should devote it to 
improvement. That road being muddy he took the other. The king 
being insane his son was appointed regent. To say the least they have 
shown great want of prudence. The young man diligent in the per- 
formance of every duty gained the confidence of his employers. To 
conclude he was greatly disappointed. Unfortunately for us the tide 
was already ebbing. They will no doubt with reasons answer you. In 
the first place he is unscrupulous. Lastly strive to preserve a con- 
science void of offense. 

[ VII.] James wait for me. Those happy days whither have they 
fled? Hamlet thou hast thy father much offended. I can not my dear 
friend do all that you desire but I will do all that is in my power. 

* The efforts of some writers to make their meaning clear by a profuse scattering 
of commas reminds one of Caddy Jelly by's complaint about her lover's notes: "She 
said, if he were not so anxious about his spelling, and took less pains to make it 
clear, he would do better; but he put so many unnecessary letters into short words 
that they sometimes quite lost their English appearance. 'He does it with the best 
intentions,' observed Caddy ; ' but it has n't the effect he means, poor fellow !' " 



264 PUNCTUATION. 

[VIII.] The period or full stop denotes the end of a sentence. We 
saw a large opening or inlet. 

[IX.] The capital of Turkey Constantinople is finely situated. 
Diogenes the Greek philosopher lived in a tub. 
[X.] For Eomans in Eome's quarrel 
Spared neither land nor gold 
Nor son nor wife nor limb nor life 
In the brave days of old. 
[XI.] Those to whom he did not speak immediately left the house. 
He can walk and run too. 

[ XII.] He was a brave generous man. He was a brave wise and 
pious man. Our reputation virtue and happiness greatly depend on 
our choice of companions. The spirit of true religion is social kind 
and cheerful. 

2. Correct the errors : 

[I.] He ran off, as fast as he could. He wishes us to be, like him 
in all we do. Forthwith she placed upon her nose, the glasses large 
and wide. And spend, in idleness or mischief, the time which ought 
to be spent in study. Charles called at the hut of this fisherm anf one 
day. Lord Palmerston then entered on his head, a white hat upon his 
feet, large but well-polished boots upon his brow, a dark cloud in his 
hand, his faithful walking-stick in his eye, a menacing glare saying 
nothing. He sat down. 

[II.] That you have not studied, is evident. How you can refuse 
that offer, is what I can not understand. I know, how you obtained 
the prize. The general belief is, that he was deceived. Tell me why, 
thus from flower to flower you fly. They told him, it was what they 
wished above all things. The poor woman felt, that she was indeed 
left alone in her desolate home. What is left, is due to me in right 
of my office. It was not right, that Mary should care for nothing 
but such things as these. The farmer found, that the wheat in that 
place was the strongest and best in the field. 

[ III.] That party, which should first strip him of his cloak, was to 
win the day. Questions, which can not be answered by yes or no, take 
the falling inflection. He, who disregards the good opinion of the vir- 
tuous, must be utterly abandoned. Theodore who is now so industrious 
was once very idle. He is trying to leave me behind him which he can 
not do. The child was much attached to Mary who loved him dearly. 
The child was much attached to one, who loved him so dearly. 

[ IV.] He was pleased, that you called to see him. She is anxious, 
that you should hear him. We are confident, that the matter can be 
explained. You ought to be ashamed, that you have lost so much time. 



THE SEMICOLON. 265 

I did not go from home, because he was coming [ I went, but not for 
that reason]. I did not go from home because he was coming [I 
staid at home, and for that reason]. 

[ V.] A little girl lived in a place, where there were a great many 
goats. "We shall always be happy, when we do our duty. He went to 
Canterbury where he found his wife. He continued to write till twelve 
when he went to his brother's. To4mprove time, while we are blessed 
with health, will smooth the bed of sickness. He went to a large city 
where he spent all his money. A word is said to be emphasized, when 
it is uttered with force. 

[ VI.] The bluebirds having come we may expect some pleasant 
weather. To come to the point he can not free himself from blame. 
James awkward in his person was not qualified to command respect. 
In short he is too ambitious. He could not however be elected. 

[ VII.] Doctor you have come too late. Do my dear friend let me 
hear from you. It cometn not again that golden time. 

[VIII.] This bird is the celebrated osprey or fish-hawk. 

[ IX.] Mohammed was a native of Mecca a city of Arabia. The 
poet, Milton, became blind. 

[XI.] "We often commend, as well as censure imprudently. It is 
the duty of a child to obey, not to direct his parents. No minister 
must be appointed, no peer created without the consent of parliament. 

[XIII.] Blind to all our claims, and woes, and wrongs. They only 
sniff, and titter, and snigger from the throat outward. 

[ XV.] In youth, shun the temptations to which youth is exposed. 
In perusing the works of such writers, we are obliged to think. By 
reading, we add the experience of others to our own. 

[XVI.] A steady and undivided attention to one object, is a sure 
mark of a superior mind. The most obvious remedy, is to withdraw 
from all association with bad men. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

I. The semicolon separates from the principal proposition 
something not so closely connected with it as portions set off 
by the comma would be. 

II. Generally speaking, the portion set off by a semicolon 
before it is a proposition complete in itself and expressing 
something formally added as a contrast, a reason, an infer- 
ence, a result, or some related idea; as, "There is a fierce 
conflict of good and evil ; but good is in the ascendant and 

23 



266 PUNCTUATION. 

must conquer at last." " Never value yourself upon your 
riches; for this is the sign of a weak mind." "He is not 
good; therefore he is not great;" "His mother and his aunt 
have indulged him in every thing; so that he has become 
insufferably vain and selfish;" "I would have the library to 
contain works on all important subjects; and works on the 
mechanic arts should certainly have a place." 

III. Propositions which would otherwise be separated by 
the period are sometimes separated by the semicolon, because 
some general thought connects the ideas expressed; as, "She 
hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine ; she hath 
also furnished her table." Here the general idea of a feast 
runs through the propositions, preventing so great a separation 
as would be denoted by the period. 

IV. The semicolon is used to separate parts of sentences 
when these parts, or any of them, consist of portions separated 
from each other by the comma; as, "The dome of Agrippa, 
still glittering with bronze; the mausoleum of Adrian, not 
yet deprived of its columns and statues; the Flavian amphi- 
theatre, not yet degraded into a quarry, told to the Mercian 
and Northumberland pilgrims some part of the story of that 
great civilized world which had passed away." — Macaulay. 

Remark.— Some would use a dash as well as a comma after quarry. 

V. Particulars introduced in such a way as to cause the 
mind to dwell on each particular are separated by the semi- 
colon; as, "A traveller must be freed from all apprehension of 
being murdered or starved before he can be charmed by the 
bold outlines and rich tints of the hills. He is not likely to be 
thrown into ecstacies by the abruptness of a precipice from which 
he is in danger of falling two thousand feet perpendicular; by 
the boiling waves of a torrent which suddenly whirls away his 
baggage and forces him to run for his life; by the gloomy 
grandeur of a pass where he finds a corpse which marauders 
have just stripped and mangled ; by the screams of those eagles 
whose next meal may probably be on his own eyes." — Macaulay. 



THE SEMICOLON. 267 

Here the repetition of the preposition by serves to introduce 
the particulars in a more formal manner, thus causing the 
mind to dwell on each one. 

VI. A general term having several particulars in apposition 
with it is separated from the particulars by the semicolon, and 
the particulars are separated from one another by the comma; 
as, " There are four genders; the masculine, the feminine, the 
common, and the neuter." 

VII. As introducing a sentence as an illustration is preceded 
by a semicolon and followed by a comma. 

VIII. If yes or no in the answer to a question is followed by 
a proposition, it is generally separated from the proposition by 
the semicolon; as, "Yes; he said he would come;" "No; I 
know nothing about it." 

Punctuate the following : EXERCISES. 

[II.] The buds spread into leaves and the blossoms swell to fruits 
but they know not how they grow. The golden rule is a protest 
against selfishness and selfishness clinging as it does to the inmost 
core of our being is the besetting sin of the world. "Why Dr Johnson 
this is not so easy as you seem to think for if you were to make little 
fishes talk you would make them talk like whales. 

[ III.] Every thing grows old every thing passes away every thing 
disappears. The most lucrative posts in his household it was said were 
held by Dutchmen the House of Lords was fast filling with Dutchmen 
the finest manors of the Crown were given to Dutchmen the army was 
commanded by Dutchmen. 

[ IV.] There was the honest cock-robin, the favorite game of stripling 
sportsmen, with its loud, querulous note and the twittering blackbirds, 
flying in sable clouds and the golden-winged woodpecker, with his 
splendid plumage and the cedar-bird, with its red-tipped wings and 
yellow-tipped tail. 

[V.] He delighted to read descriptions of countries devastated by 
war of cities destroyed by fire of regions depopulated by the plague. 

[ VI.] There are three cases the nominative the possessive and the 
objective. 

[VII.] There should be no point between the factitive objective 
and the verb as Plutarch calls lying the vice of slaves. 

[VIII.] Did you see him? No I could not find him. Have you 
ever been in Mobile? Yes I was there last winter. 



268 PUNCTUATION. 



THE COLON. 

I. The colon sets off a proposition not formally connected 
with the preceding part of the sentence ; as, 

My father lived beside the Tyne ; 

A wealthy lord was he; 
And all his wealth was marked as mine: 

He had but only me. — Goldsmith. 

Remark. — The last line gives a reason without being formally connected with 
what goes before. If for had been expressed, thus making a formal connection, the 
semicolon should have been used instead of the colon. 

II. An unconnected proposition expressing in another form 
what has been previously expressed is set off by the colon ; as, 
"But Goldsmith had no secrets: his follies, his weaknesses, 
his errors, were all thrown to the surface. " — Irving, 

III. A proposition containing a general statement, if fol- 
lowed by propositions separated by semicolons and giving 
particulars as illustrations,* should have a colon after it; as, 
"He disposed of his time with great regularity: in his garden 
he limited himself to one hour twice a day ; in reading books 
of amusement he limited himself to one hour after breakfast 
and another in the evening." 

IV. The colon is used before a quotation not introduced as 
the object of a verb; as, "He spoke as follows: 'When public 
bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions,'" etc.; "He 
expressed himself thus : 'lam lost in wonder at this infatua- 
tion. I see before me,'" etc. ; " His words were these: 'The 
man is guilty of perjury';" "Fierce he broke forth: 'And 
dar'st thou then,'" etc. 

Remark. — After say, reply, exclaim, cry, or other verb of the kind, the quotation 
is the object of the verb, and it is separated from the verb by the comma. {See 
Remark, p. 258.) Though there may be more than one sentence in the quotation, 
still the comma is used, the whole quotation being taken as a unit; as, " Retiring to 
his chamber, he said to Rapp, ' Misfortunes never come singly. This event fills up 
the measure of evil here.' " 

V. The colon is used when such expressions as the following 
point forward to something. For illustrations see the intro- 

* Genus and species. 



THE COLON. 269 

ductions to the exercises, p. 257. It will be seen that the colon 
at the end does not interfere with the intermediate punctuation : 
a period, for instance, may occur between the following and the 
colon. 

The colon is used also after a formal address at the beginning 
of a speech; as, "Ladies and gentlemen: The subject before us 
is one of great importance," etc. Also after a formal address 
at the beginning of a letter; as, "My Dear Friend: You do 
not know how anxious I am to hear from you," etc. 

Remark. — The formal address is generally placed in a line by itself. 

Punctuate the following : EXERCISES. 

[I.] Study to acquire a habit of thinking no study is more impor- 
tant. Avoid affectation it is a contemptible weakness. Be on thy 
guard against flattery it is an insidious poison. 

[II.] He was generous and inconsiderate money with him had no 
value. Laziness grows on people it begins in cobwebs and ends in iron 
chains. They talked of their murderous exploits as a sportsman talks 
of his amusements to shoot down a traveler seemed of little more 
consequence to them than to shoot down a hare. 

[III.] The Scottish people had always been singularly turbulent 
and ungovernable they had butchered their first James in his bed- 
chamber they had repeatedly arrayed themselves in arms against 
James the Second they had slain James the Third on the field of 
battle their disobedience had broken the heart of James the Fifth 
they had deposed and imprisoned Mary they had led her son captive.* 
The Conqueror and his descendants were not Englishmen most of 
them were born in France their ordinary speech was French. 

[IV.] His speech was as follows " I have not come to waste your 
time," etc. He folded his arms, and thus he spoke "My manors, halls, 
and bowers," etc. 

[Eemark.] He said "I will wait for you here. Come back as soon 
as you can." "Turning to Graham, she added 'Will you help to make 
way for us?' " 

[V.] She found in his pockets the following articles an apple, etc. 
Friends and fellow-citizens On this beautiful day, etc. 

-Macaulay has a period after ungovernable ; but a colon seems to be required, in 
order to show that what precedes is a statement of a generic fact of which the fol- 
lowing propositions, separated by semicolons, contain specific instances. 



270 PUNCTUATION. 

THE INTEKROGATION-POINT. 

I. The interrogation-point, or note of interrogation, marks 
the end of a question ; as, " Of what parentage are you ? " 
"He said, 'Of what parentage are you?'" 

Remark. — This point is to be used only with direct questions. " He asked me 
of what parentage I was." Here is not a question, but merely an assertion that a 
question was asked. 

II. The interrogation -point is generally equivalent to a 
period and followed by a capital letter; as, "Do you confess 
so much? Give me your hand." But sometimes the degree 
of separation is no greater than that marked by the comma or 
the semicolon; as, "Will you sit down? and we two will rail 
against the world." 

III. In a series of connected questions the interrogation- 
point should be used after each complete question; as, "What 
said he? How looked he? Did he ask for me?" But when 
two or more questions are arranged as one, no answer being 
expected till after the last, this point is used after the last 
only; as, "Hath he said it, and will he not do it?" "Will 
you go, or will you stay?" 

Punctuate the following: EXERCISES. 

[ I.] Why did you cry When did you come How long have you 
been here Knowest thou the land where the citrons bloom Have you 
read Milton 

[Remark.] They asked me why I cried Tell me when you came 
John asked me when I came You ask me whether I have read Milton 

[II.] Marked ye his words he would not take the crown. Shall I 
descend and will you give me leave 

[III.] Must I budge Must I observe you Must I stand and 
crouch under your testy humor Hath he spoken it and shall he not 
make it good Did he go or did he send 

THE EXCLAMATION-POINT. 

I. The exclamation-point, or note of exclamation, is used 
after vehement expressions of emotion; as, "O Banquo! 
Banquo! our royal master's murdered!" 



THE EXCLAMATIOX-POINT. 271 

II. Ill impassioned language this point is used after the 
nominative independent instead of the points that would be 
used in unimpassioned language; as, "All hail, Macbeth! 
Hail to thee, thane of Cawdor!" "O thou vile king! give 
me my father!" 

Remark.— The interrogation-point is sometimes improperly used after excla- 
mations that have the form of questions; as, "0! who would inhabit this bleak 
world alone?" This being intended, not for inquiry, but for a forcible expression 
of opinion, the exclamation-point should be used. 

III. The exclamation-point is generally used after interjec- 
tions; as, "Fie! how dare you do it!" "O! save him!" 

But when interjections are used as pro-propositions (see page 
157), or when they are placed before nouns in the nominative 
case independent or objective independent (see Remark, p. 248), 
the exclamation-point is placed at the end of the expression ; as, 
"Fie upon thee, slanderer!" "0 that my heart would burst!" 
"O most lame and impotent conclusion!" "Ah me unhappy!" 
"O me, that awful dream!" 

IV. This point should be placed only where the full force 
of the exclamation is brought out; as, "Charge, Chester, 
charge!" This is better than "Charge! Chester, charge!" 
because the exclamation is partially suspended till the second 
"charge." But in Othello's bitter exclamation against his own 
folly, "O fool! fool! fool!" the point is properly placed after 
each "fool." 

Punctuate the following: EXERCISES. 

[ I.] Hail to the chief who in triumph advances Set a village on 
fire the wicked wretches Good heavens the child is swallowing a pin 
How cold the weather is What running and screaming and laughing 
Vengeance plague death confusion Blasts and fogs upon thee 

Tramp tramp along the land they rode 
Splash splash along the sea 

[II.] Gold and gold and nothing but gold God save thee, ancient 
Mariner The heavens thee guard and keep, most royal imp of fame 
My king my Jove I speak to thee, my heart 

[Kemark.] How can you be so careless Was this a face to be 
exposed against the warring winds 



272 PUNCTUATION. 

[III.] Bah this is the third umbrella gone since Christmas. O let 
me not be mad O speak to me no more O what a noble mind is here 
o'erthrown O my soul's joy O wretched state O bosom black as death 

[ I V.] On Stanley on Keputation reputation reputation I have 
lost my reputation Lights lights lights Speed Malise speed 

THE DASH. 
The dash is used — 

I. When a sentence breaks off abruptly; as, "'Ah! Bur- 
leigh, thou little knowest' — here her tears fell over her cheeks 
in despite of her;" "'Still my advice is so far worth taking 
that — in short, that I have never taken it myself and am 
the — • here Mr. Micawber, who had been beaming and smiling 
all over his head and face, checked himself and frowned — 'the 
miserable wretch you behold.'" 

II. When there is a change in the construction of the sen- 
tence; as, "The pages of history — how is it that they are so 
dark and sad?" "The infinity of the worlds and the narrow 
spot of earth which we call our country or our home, the eternity 
of ages and the few hours of life, the almighty power of God 
and human nothingness, — it is impossible to think of these 
things in succession without a feeling like that which is pro- 
duced by the sublimest eloquence." 

Remark.— The latter sentence begins as if infinity, spot, eternity, etc., were to be 
made the subjects of some verb; but the construction is changed so that they stand 
as nominatives independent. Some would use the semicolon instead of the dash 
after nothingness, and this point would be sufficient. 

III. Before and after a parenthesis; as, "Those who hated 
him most heartily — and no man was hated more heartily — 
admitted that his natural parts were excellent." 

Remark.— A parenthesis is some incidental and explanatory remark inserted in 
a sentence which is complete without it ; as, " and no man was hated more heartily," 
in the passage quoted above. 

IV. At a significant pause; as, — 

" Before my face my handkerchief I spread, 
To hide the flood of tears I did — not shed." 

Remark. — This use of the dash should be indulged in very sparingly; for it 
is equivalent to saying, "Attend! I am going to say something smart!" Some 



THE DASH. 273 

writers and readers by placing a dash or making a " significant pause" before the 
fourth line of each stanza in Goldsmith's " Elegy on the Death of Madam Blaize" 
show that they do not comprehend the humor of the piece. 

V. Where a passage that has been interrupted is resumed 
with a repetition of some word or words previously used; as, 
" 'I feared/ said the youth, with a tear in his eye — 'I feared 
that the brute's voice would disturb her;'" "Only permission, 
madam, if it is not asking too high a favor — permission to 
wear the cloak which did you this trifling service;" " 'I wish/ 
said my uncle Toby, with a deep sigh — 'I wish, Trim, I were 
asleep.'" 

VI. Before a word emphatically repeated; as, "Newton 
was a Christian — Newton, whose mind burst from the fetters 
cast by nature on our finite conceptions." 

Remark. — Some would place a semicolon as well as a dash before the repeated 
Newton, but there is no necessity for the semicolon, and the page is neater without it. 

VII. When the speeches of different speakers are placed in 
the same paragraph they are sometimes separated by the dash. 
"What does this mean, Mr. Etty?" — "Suppose you look." — 
"But I have looked." — "Suppose you look again." 

Remark. — Some do not use the dash in such cases, regarding the marks of quo- 
tation as a sufficient separation. "What does this mean, Mr. Etty?" "Suppose 
you look." " But I have looked." " Suppose you look again." 

VIII. When a sentence is continued on the next line, as in 
the first line under "The Dash." 

IX. To denote hesitation or faltering; as, "He stands up 
to you like — like a — why, I don't know what he doesn't 
stand up to you like." 

X. To denote an expressive pause; as, "Then the pulse 
fluttered — stopped — went on — throbbed — stopped again — 
moved — stopped — Shall I go on? — No." 

Punctuate the following: EXERCISES. 

[I.] "Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band? 
Was there ever but I scorn to boast. If you will give me your 
attention, I will show you but stop, I do not know that you wish 
to see. We should be willing to assist his majesty; but two hundred 
thousand pounds at a time like this 



274 PUNCTUATION. 

[II.] Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth. the words of such men do 
not stale upon us. But my feelings words are too weak to express them. 

[ III.] The ministry for that word may now with propriety be used 
readily consented. Having performed this ceremony, he was permitted 
and the permission was blamed by the Savoyards to limp home without 
a rag upon him. 

[IV.] The good woman was allowed by every person, except her 
husband, to be a sweet-tempered lady when not in liquor. 

[V.] "We have framed" such was in substance his reasoning "we 
have framed a law which has in it nothing exclusive." "I did not 
know," she said, with a tremulous voice, her lips quivering "I did not 
know how hard a thing it would be to leave my children." 

[VI.] Can Parliament be so dead to its dignity and duty as to give 
its sanction to measures thus obtruded and forced upon them? measures, 
my lords, which have reduced this late flourishing kingdom to scorn 
and contempt. 

[IX.] I did not wish to but a it was necessary a to to secure his 
a support. 

[X.] The stream fell over the precipice paused fell paused again 
then darted down the valley. 

THE CUKVES, OK MAKKS OF PAKENTHESIS. 

The curves, or marks of parenthesis, are used to inclose 
parentheses; as, "I stood to hear (I love it well) the rain's 
continuous sound." (See III, Remark, p. 272.) 

Remarks. — 1. The dash is at present used more frequently than the curves, 
being thought to have a neater appearance. 

2. A parenthesis does not interfere with the punctuation of the passage in which 
it occurs; as, "The night (it was the middle of summer) was fair and calm." 
Whatever point is demanded by the passage is placed after the last curve. " If he 
sometimes stooped to be a villain, it was merely to amuse himself and to astonish 
other people." If a parenthesis is inserted after villain, the comma is placed after 
the parenthesis, and not at villain; as, "If he sometimes stooped to be a villain 
(for no milder word will come up to the truth), it was merely," etc. 

3. Some would place a comma at villain and one before the last curve also ; as, 
" If he sometimes stooped to be a villain, (for no milder word will come up to the 
truth,) it was merely," etc. But the other punctuation is preferable. " Heaven knew 
nothing of thee (could in charity know nothing of thee) ; and as for Beelzebub, his 
friendship, as is ascertained, can not count for much." This is better than " Heaven 
knew nothing of thee ; [could in charity know nothing of thee ;) and," etc. 

4. The parts of the parenthesis itself are punctuated according to the general 
rules; as, "Our little room (is it not a little one?) is well filled;" "Thou too (O 
heavens!) mayst become a political power;" "The Sabbath stillness of the time 
(the day was so like Sunday ! I have not forgotten that) was suited to us both." 
The period, however, is not placed at the end of the parenthesis. 



THE HYPHEN. 275 

EXERCISES. 

Place the curves where required: 

Are you still I fear you are far from comfortably settled? A 
cloggy sensation of the lukewarm fat meat is upon me we dined an 
hour ago, and my head is as heavy as so much lead. He seemed to 
be very fond of my mother I am afraid I liked him none the better 
for that, and she was very fond of him. The rocks hard-hearted 
varlets! melted not into tears at his lamentation. "While they wish 
to please and why should they not wish it? they disdain dishonor- 
able means. Left now to himself and malice could not wish him a 
worse adviser, he resolved on a desperate project. 

THE HYPHEN. 

The hyphen is used to join the parts of compound words: 
as, "laughter-loving, printing-office. " It is also used after one 
or more syllables to show that the rest of the w T ord is in the 
next line. 

When two words are so closely joined in pronunciation that 
they have but one primary accent they are united in one 
compound w r ord; as, "walking-stick, singing-school, inkstand, 
sunbeam." 

Remarks.— 1. " The crow is a black bird, but not a blackbird." In speaking the 
separate words black and bird we accent both ; but in speaking blackbird we accent 
the first syllable only. "A walking stick" would mean a stick that walks ; but "a 
walking-stick" is a stick to walk with. "A reading lesson" would mean a lesson 
that reads; but a " reading - lesson " is a lesson for reading. "Boy hunters " = 
hunters who are boys; but " boy - hunters " = persons who hunt boys. "A hot 
house" = a house which is hot; but "a hot- house " =a house for protecting 
plants from cold. "A singing school" = a school that is singing; but "a singing- 
school " = a school for teaching singing. " Exclamation-point " = a point to mark 
exclamation. 

2. When words are first compounded the component parts are united by the 
hyphen; but when the compound words come into very common use the hyphen, 
unless the component parts are very long, is generally omitted; as, " steam -boat, 
steamboat." 

No definite rule with respect to the omission of the hyphen can be given. The 
dictionaries are inconsistent ; for we find in them such inconsistent forms as hot-house 
and greenhouse. Till recently bluebird was written blue-bird, though at the same time 
blackbird was written as a solid word. 

3. Sometimes a part belonging to each of two connected compound words is 
expressed only once, in which case the hyphen is generally omitted; as, "dwelling 
and sleeping rooms " = dwelling-rooms and sleeping-rooms. In German books a 
hyphen is placed where the part is omitted; as, "Gehirn- oder Nervenkrankheit " 
(brain- or nerve -disease). This is sometimes done in English books; as, "For 



276 PUNCTUATION. 

poaching at once upon the game- and the sin - preserves of his betters."— R. G. 
White. " Who was what is called a rigger, and mast-, oar-, and block-maker."— 
Forster's Life of Dickens. This deserves to be followed ; as, "dwelling- and sleeping- 
rooms, the exclamation- and the interrogation-point." 

4. Compound numerals from twenty to hundred have their parts united by the 
hyphen; as, "twenty -one, twenty -first." 

5. The adverbs ill, well, and sometimes others, are joined to participles coming 
before the modified noun, but are not joined when the participle comes after the 
noun; as, " With an ill-trained and ill-appointed army." — Macaulay. "The horses 
had been ill fed and ill tended." — Id. "Two hundred Irish foot, ill armed, ill 
clothed, and ill disciplined." — Id. The participle coming before the noun is used 
in the sense of an adjective. 

6. When a compound word the parts of which are united by the hyphen is made 
to form part of another compound word the first hyphen is omitted: Red-headed 
united with woodpecker forms redheaded-woodpecker, not red-headed-woodpecker. Some 
omit the second hyphen instead of the first ; as, " red-headed woodpecker." 

7. When two words usually separated are used in the sense of an adjective they 
are united by the hyphen; as, "Main Street," "Main-street car;" "A New-Albany 
wagon." "A New Albany wagon " might be understood to mean an Albany wagon 
which is new. 

EXERCISES. 

Insert hyphens in the proper places : 

Let us go to the printing office. The dining room is empty. They 
have a diving hell. She is at the dancing school. The reading lessons 
are preceded hy definitions. This is a difficult spelling lesson. Is this 
an interrogation point? It is a well preserved specimen. The coat 
was made of dark blue cloth. 



THE QUOTATION-POINTS, OK MAEKS OF QUOTATION. 

The quotation-points, or marks of quotation, inclose some- 
thing quoted. 

Examples. — Socrates said, "I helieve that the soul is immortal." 
"I helieve," said Socrates, "that the soul is immortal." 

If the substance only is given, not the words, the quotation- 
points are not used. 

Examples. — Socrates said he "believed that the soul is immortal. 
He answered that he would not come. 

A quotation included within a quotation is marked with one 
point at the beginning and one at the end, instead of two. 

Example. — "I have had what women call 'a real good cry.'" The 
single point after cry marks the end of the included quotation, and the 
double point marks the end of the whole quotation. 



i 



OTHER MARKS. 277 

When a question or an exclamation is quoted the marks 
of quotation should follow the marks of interrogation or of 
exclamation. 

Examples. — He said, "What are you doing here?" He exclaimed, 
"O the perfidy of man !" 

But if the mark of interrogation or of exclamation does not 
belong to the part quoted, but to the whole passage, it is placed 
after the marks of quotation. 

Examples. — Will you say "I am holier than thou"? And this is 
your "happy home"! 

OTHER MARKS. 

Brackets generally inclose some explanation or something 
intended to prevent mistake; as, "John told James that he 
[James] was to get a new book." 

The Apostrophe is used where a ktter is omitted; as, 
e'en for even, 'tis for it is. It is used as a sign of the pos- 
sessive case, marking the omission of the e which formerly 
belonged to this case; as, lamb's for lambes. 

The Dueresis placed over the latter of two vowels shows 
that they do not form a diphthong ; as, aerial. The diseresis 
here shows that this word is not to be pronounced erial. 

The Ellipsis is generally used where some letters are 
omitted from a name; as, B n, or B***n, for Byron. 

The Section [§] marks the small divisions of a. book or 
chapter. 

The Paragraph [^[], which is not much used except in 
the English Bible, denotes the beginning of a new subject. 

The Index, or Hand [Jl®*], is used to point out some- 
thing to which particular attention is called. 

The Brace [}] is used to connect several terms with one 

John Williams, ) T i? 1 J 

common term : as, James Anderson, ^-Managers, it was formerly used 

7 Robert Thomson,) § ^ 

to connect the three lines of verse which form a triplet. 



278 CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The Caret, used in writing only, shows where to insert 

my 

words or letters that have been omitted; as, "This is A book." 

The Macron, or the Long, placed over a vowel shows that 
the vowel has its long sound; as, Palestine. The mark here 
shows that i has the sound that it has in fine. 

The Breve, or the Short, placed over a vowel shows that 
the vowel has its short sound; as, fertile. The mark here 
shows that i has the sound that it has in fin. 

The Asterisk [*], the Obelisk [f], the Double Dagger 
[J], and the Parallels [||] refer to marginal notes. The 
letters of the alphabet and the numerical figures are often 
used for the same purpose. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The following words should begin with capital letters: 

1. The first word of every distinct sentence. 

Remark. — In a formal enumeration each particular begins with a capital; as, 
" This takes place 1. When an address is made ; 2. In mere exclamations." 

In an enumeration of this kind the period is sometimes used after each item, 
the connection being regarded as sufficiently indicated by the figures. 

2. Proper names and titles; as, "Socrates, George Washington, 
Judge Story, Lord Palmerston, Sir Walter Scott, General Lee, the 
Duke of Wellington, Charles the Bold, Walnut Street, Ohio, the 
Hon. John Smith, the Rev. Dr. Matthews, Great Salt Lake, Lake 
Erie, the Lake of Geneva, Jerse} 7 City, New Orleans, Madison Square, 
Cape Fear, Khode Island, Hudson's Bay, Trinity College, Black Sea, 
the Mountains of the Moon." 

Remarks.— 1. Names of objects personified are of course regarded as proper 
names ; as, "And Truth severe by fairy Fiction dressed." 

2. The French de (of) and the German von (of) are written in small letters when 
preceded by some part of the name or by a title ; when not so preceded they begin 
with capitals ; as, " Captain de Caxton ; the old De Caxtons." — Bulwer. " Wolfgang 
von Dilke ; even Von Raumer."— Hood. The corresponding Dutch van seems to be 
always written with a capital v, and it is sometimes united with the following noun; 
as, " Martin Van Buren ; Sir Anthony Van Dyck, or Vandyck." 

3. The names of months and days begin with capitals, but not the names of the 
seasons; as, "January, August, Monday, Christmas, Good Friday, spring, summer." 

3. All the chief words in the titles of books; as, "Clarendon's 
History of the Great Rebellion." 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 279 

4. Names of the Deity; as, u God, Jehovah, Most High, Divine 
Providence, Almighty, Supreme Being, Great Spirit." 

Remark. — A pronoun referring to the Deity should begin with a capital only 
when it is equivalent to a name of the Deity ; as, " Our trust is in Him who guides 
the storm." 

But some in modern times begin with capitals all pronouns referring to the 
Deity, even relative pronouns ; as, " Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, Thou That 
leadest Joseph like a flock." This is a kind of typographical cant which does not 
show itself in the English Bible, the Book of Common Prayer, the Westminster 
Confession of Faith, or the Roman Catholic prayer-books. 

5. Words derived from proper names; as, Roman, English, Ameri- 
can, Americanism. But when the derived word ceases to point to its 
origin it no longer begins with a capital. Thus, stentorian is derived 
from Stentor, the loud-voiced herald in Homer; but as we do not now 
think of Stentor when we use this word we do not begin it with a 
capital. The word italic denoting a kind of type should, according to 
this principal, begin with a small letter. 

6. Every line of poetry. 

7. The first word of a direct' quotation when the quotation would 
form a complete sentence by itself; as, "Chaucer beautifully says, 'Up 
rose the sonne, and up rose Emelie.' " 

Remark. — The word that introducing a statement of something resolved or 
enacted should begin with a capital; as, " "Resolved, That the thanks of this 
meeting," etc.; "Be it enacted, That after this date," etc. 

8. The letters I and forming the pronoun I and the interjection 
are always capital letters. 

Remark. — Some writers begin with a capital any word which they consider 
of special importance. Carlyle makes constant use of capitals, sometimes where 
others would use italics ; as, " Labour's thousand hammers ring on her anvils : 
also a more miraculous Labour works noiselessly, not with the Hand but with 
the Thought." 

EXERCISES. 

Write the following with capitals in their proper places: 

thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not steal, honesty is the best policy, 
the soldiers of general Washington loved him. socrates, plato, aristotle, 
and pythagoras were grecian philosophers. 

he has read a great many german and french works, solomon says, 
a wise man feareth and departeth from evil, remember the ancient 
maxim, know thyself, he has read milton's paradise lost and paradise 
regained, if i can find the work, i will send it to you. hear, o man. 
o excellent scipio! 

here rests his head upon the lap of earth 
a youth to fortune and to fame unknown. 



280 QUESTIONS FOB, REVIEW. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

What is punctuation ? Chief use of the points ? The principal points ? What 
does the period mark ? The principal use of the comma ? When should a noun- 
proposition not be cut off? An adjective-proposition ? An adjunct-proposition? By 
what is the punctuation of adverb-propositions governed ? Mention some expres- 
sions which are equivalent to propositions and are cut off by the comma. What of 
the punctuation of the nominative independent ? Of another name for an object 
introduced by or ? Of nouns in apposition ? Of words arranged in pairs ? Give an 
instance of a comma employed to prevent misconception of the meaning. What 
punctuation when there is an ellipsis of the verb? What punctuation when con- 
junctions are omitted ? In a compound subject should a comma be placed between 
the last of the nouns and the verb? What of the punctuation when an adverb or 
other expression is out of its natural place? Should the subject be cut off from its 
predicate? What is the office of the semicolon? What is the character of the 
portion set off by the semicolon ? Why are propositions which would otherwise be 
separated by the period sometimes separated by the semicolon ? What punctuation 
when parts of sentences consist of portions separated from each other by the comma ? 
What punctuation when particulars are introduced in such a way as to cause the 
mind to dwell on each particular? What punctuation when a general term has 
several particulars in apposition with it? What of as introducing a sentence as an 
illustration? What of the punctuation of yes and no? What is the office of the 
colon ? Explain the punctuation of the sentence, " But Goldsmith had no secrets,'* 
etc. Of the sentence, " He disposed of his time with great regularity," etc. When 
is the colon used before a quotation ? What punctuation with such expressions as 
the following? After a formal address at the beginning of a speech or letter? What 
is the office of the interrogation point ? With what kind of letter is this point fol- 
lowed? What punctuation in a series of connected questions? What is the office 
of the exclamation-point? Explain the punctuation of "All hail, Macbeth!" How 
are interjections punctuated? Where should this point be placed? What is the 
first case in which the dash is used ? The second ? The third ? The fourth ? The 
fifth ? The sixth ? The seventh ? The eighth ? The ninth ? The tenth ? What is 
the office of the curves ? What is said of the punctuation of the passage in which 
the parenthesis occurs ? Of the parts of the parenthesis itself? What is the office 
of the hyphen? When words are first compounded how are the component parts 
united ? What is the office of the quotation-points ? What if the substance only is 
given? What of a quotation within a quotation? Where are the quotation-points 
placed when a question or exclamation is quoted ? What is the office of the brackets ? 
Of the apostrophe? Of the diasresis? Of the ellipsis? Of the section? Of the 
paragraph ? Of the index ? Of the brace ? Of the caret ? Of the macron ? Of the 
breve? Of the asterisk, etc.? What is the first class of words that should begin 
with capital letters? The second? The third? The fourth? The fifth? The sixth? 
The seventh ? The eighth ? 



KINDS OF FEET. 281 



PEOSODY. 



Prosody treats of the laws of versification, or verse- 
making. 

A verse is a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables 
arranged in order and forming a line of poetry. 

Remark. — The word verse is from the Latin versus, a turning; and a verse is so 
called because at the end of one line there is a turning to the beginning of another 
line. The word verse is sometimes applied to a collection of verses properly called 
a stanza. 

A foot is a portion of a verse, consisting of two or more syllables 
combined according to accent. 

Scanning is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which it is 
composed. 

The macron [-] over a syllable shows that it is accented; the 
breve [ w ] shows that the syllable is unaccented. 

Remark.— In the poetry of some languages syllables are long or short instead 
of accented and unaccented, a long syllable occupying twice the time of a short . 
syllable. 

KINDS OF FEET. 

The principal feet are the iambus, the trochee, the anapest, 
and the dactyl. 

The iambus and the trochee consist each of two syllables, and the 
anapest and the dactyl each of three syllables. 

The iambus has the second syllable accented and the first unac- 
cented; as, devote, create. 

The trochee has the first syllable accented and the second unac- 
cented; as, older, running. 

The anapest has the last syllable accented and the two first 
unaccented; as, understand, misbehave. 

The dactyl has the first syllable accented and the two last 
unaccented ; as, laborer, positive. 

Remark.— Part of a foot may be in one word and part in another or others ; as, 
"Sweet ru | ral scene." 
Here the accented syllable ru of rural is joined with the unaccented sweet to form 
an iambus, and the unaccented ral of the same word is joined with the accented 

24 



282 PROSODY. 

scene to form another iambus. Two or more monosyllables may be taken together in 
such away that one of them, from its relative importance or its position in the verse, 
receives the accent, just as if the monosyllables were syllables of one word; as, 

"All crimes | shall cease, | and an | cient fraud | shall fail." 

It will also be seen from this verse that a monosyllable may, to form a foot, be taken 
with the unaccented syllable of another word, as in -cient fraud. 

The spondee and the pyrrhic are two feet which occasionally occur. 

The spondee consists of two accented syllables; as, 

"Town, tower, "Waves gray, 
Shore, deep, Where play 

Where lower Winds gay — 

Cliffs steep; All asleep."— From Victor Hugo. 

The pyrrhic consists of two unaccented syllables ; as, 

"Brought death into the world and all our woe."— Milton. 
A word of one syllable is sometimes placed so as to be dwelt on 
and made equivalent to a foot; as, 

" Break, break, break 
On thy cold gray stones, O sea!"— Tennyson. 

Remark.— A word used in this way is sometimes called a caesura.* 

EXERCISES. 

What foot does each of the following words form? 

Console, compose, confine, derange, divide, unite, erect, distinct, 
mother, other, singer, going, feeling, ever, never, wither, hydrant, 
distant, overtake, overcome, absentee, insincere, introduce, entertain, 
recommend, incomplete, supervise, prosody, singular, masculine, fuel, 
syllable, happiness, bigotry, artifice, sacred, efface, dissent, gather, 
elegant, disconnect, complete, simple, deserve, finish. 

RHYME. 

Poetry is either with or without rhyme. 

Rhyme is a correspondence of sound between the endings of two 
or more verses; as, 

"Favors to none, to all she smiles intends; 
Oft she rejects, but never once offends."— Pope. 

The term rhyme is also applied to a word that rhymes with another. 
A syllable that rhymes with another must be at no great distance 
from it, so that the sound of the first syllable may remain in the 
memory till that of the second is heard. 

■■'Caesura, which literally means cutting off, is properly applied to the separation 
of the parts of a foot by the sense ; as, 

"A steed comes at morning: nd rider is there."— Campbell. * 
Here the syllables in italics make one foot ; but the sense makes a pause or sepa- 
ration between ing and the rest of the foot. 



KINDS OF VEKSE. 283 

In perfect rhymes the vowel-sound is the same, and what follows 
the vowel-sound is the same. Thus, -tends and -fends have the same 
vowel -sound, e short, and the same sounds following e, nds. "What 
precedes the vowel -sounds must be different; as, -tends and -fends. 
Extends and intends would not furnish proper rhymes, both words 
ending in the same accented syllable tends. 

Sometimes an unaccented syllable is added after the accented syl- 
lable ; as, dying, flying. This kind of rhyme is called double rhyme. 
When two unaccented syllables are added the rhyme is called triple 
rhyme; as, finical, cynical. 

Sometimes a syllable in the middle portion of a verse rhymes with 
one at the end; as, "The splendor falls on castle walls." This is called 
middle rhyme. 

Remark.— Poets often use what are called "allowable rhymes," in which the 
vowel-sounds are somewhat different; as, 

" Hither the heroes and the nymphs resort 
To taste a while the pleasures of a court." — Pope. 

What follows the yowel-sounds must be the same in "allowable" as well as in 
perfect rhyme. 

KINDS OF VEKSE. 

Iambic verse is composed chiefly of iambuses ; trochaic verse 
of trochees ; anapestic verse of anapests ; and dactylic verse of 
dactyls. 

Iambic Verse. 

1. To meet. 

2. Through woods, | through lakes. 

3. Beloved | from pole | to pole. 

4. The Ice | was here, | the ice | was there. 

5. The lo | tus blooms | below | the bar | ren peak. ■ 

6. Thy realm | for ev | er lasts, | thy own | MessI [ ah reigns. 

7. A thoujsand knlghts|are pressing cl6se|behlndjthe snow|-white crest. 

Each of these kinds of iambic verse may take an additional unac- 
cented syllable; as, 

1. Disdain | ing. 

2. Beside | a fount | ain. 

3. The al | batross | did fol | low. 

4. But hail, | thou god | dess sage | and ho | ly. 

5. The meet | ing points | the sa | cred hair | dissev | er. 

6. Wh6se front | can brave | the storm | but will | not rear | the fldw | Sr. 

7. They come! | the mer | ry sum | mer months 1 6f beau | ty, song, | and flo w | ers. 



284 PROSODY. 

Iambic verse of five feet is called heroic verse, because it is the 
verse employed in poems relating the exploits of heroes. 

An iambic verse of six feet is called an alexandrine* a name 
derived from an old French poem on the exploits of Alexander. 

Remark. — Most of the works of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Dry den, Pope, 
Cowper, Thomson, Young, and Wordsworth are in heroic verse. 

An elegiac stanza — so called because it is used in elegies, or plaintive 

poems — consists of four heroic verses, the first verse rhyming with the 

third and the second with the fourth ; as, 

" The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The plowman homew r ard plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me." 

Remark. — This is the stanza of Gray's "Elegy in a Country Church-yard." 
The Spenserian stanza consists of eight heroic verses followed by 
an alexandrine. The first verse rhymes with the third ; the second 
with the fourth, fifth, and seventh; the sixth with the eighth and 

ninth; as, « And greedy Avarice by him did ride 
Upon a camel laden all with gold; 
Two iron coffers hung on either side, 
With precious metal full as they might hold; 
And in his lap a heap of coin he told; 
For of his wicked pelf a god he made, 

And unto hell himself for money sold; 
Accursed usury was all his trade; 
And right and wrong alike in equal balance weighed." 

Remark.— This is the stanza of Spenser's "Faerie Queen," Thomson's "Castle 
of Indolence," Beattie's "Minstrel," and Byron's "Childe Harold." 

A sonnet consists of fourteen heroic verses, which are generally 
arranged in four stanzas, the two first containing four verses each, the 
two last containing three verses each ; as in the following sonnet of 

Milton : « Cyriack, this three years' day these eyes, though clear 

To outward view of blemish or of spot, 

Bereft of light, their seeing have forgot; 
Nor to their idle orbs doth sight appear 
Of sun or moon or star, throughout the year, 

Or man or woman. Yet I argue not 

Against Heaven's hand or will, nor bate a jot 
Of heart or hope; but still bear up and steer 
Right onward. What supports me, dost thou ask? 

The conscience, friend, to have lost them overplied 
In liberty's defense, my noble task, 

Of which all Europe rings from side to side. 
This thought might lead me through the world's vain mask 

Content though blind, had I no better guide." 

* This word is generally, but unnecessarily, begun with a capital. 



KINDS OF VERSE. 285 

Remark.— This is the way in which Milton's sonnets are printed. Wordworth's 
sonnets are printed without any marking of the divisions. Shakespeare's sonnets 
are arranged in three elegiac stanzas followed by a couplet, or two lines rhyming 
with each other. 

Iambic verse of seven feet is usually divided into two lines, the first 
containing four feet, the second three; as, 

"When all thy mercies, O my God, 
My rising soul surveys." 

This is what is called common meter. Long meter has four iambuses in 
each line; as, (iQ] come ^ loud anthems let us sing) 
Loud thanks to our Almighty King." 

Short meter has three iambuses in the first, second, and fourth lines 
and four in the third; as, 

"May Jacob's God defend 
And hear us in distress, 
Our succor from his temple send, 
Our cause from Sion bless!" 

1. Straying. TROCHAIC Vehse. 

2. Clouds are | flying. 

3. Go where | glory | waits thee. 

4. Bead this | song of | Hla | watha. 

5. Spake full | well in | language | quaint and | olden. 

6. Lay a | shepherd | swain and | viewed the | rolling | billow. 

7. Woo the | fair one | when a | round her | early | birds are | singing. 

8. Not the|least 6|beisance|made he,|not an |lnstant| stopped 6r|stayed he. 

Trochaic verse may take an additional accented syllable; as, 

1. Blpples | flow. 

2. Hark the | rising | swell. 

3. Thee the | voice, the | dance 6 | bey. 

4. Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair. 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit! | bird thou | never | wert. 

6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Water | loo. 

7. Dreary|gleams a|bout the|moorland,|flying|over|Locksley|Hall. 

Verses like the three last maybe divided each into two; as, 

"Hail to thee, blithe spirit! 
Bird thou never wert." 

"Night and morning were at meeting 
Over Waterloo." 

Remarks.— 1. Trochaic verse with the additional accented syllable is the same 
as iambic verse without the initial unaccented syllable. 

2. Longfellow's " Hiawatha" is in trochaic verse of four feet. 



286 PROSODY. 

1. No reply. ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

2. Eor my love | lie is late. 

3. She will say | 't was a bar | barous deed. 

4. 'T was the nlght|before Christ|mas, and all|through the house. 

Remark. — Greater stress on the first syllable will change anapestic verse of one 
foot to a trochee with an additional accented syllable. 

1. Merrily. DACTYLIC VEB8E. 

2. Rashly im | portunate. 

3. March to the | battle field | fearlessly. 

4. Bachelor's | Hall, what a | queer-looking | place it is! 

Dactylic verse scarcely ever ends with the dactyl. Sometimes an 
accented syllable is added, sometimes a trochee; as, 

Brightest and | best 6f the - | sons 6f the | morning, 
Dawn on our | darkness and | lend us thine | aid. 

The epic or heroic verse of the Greeks and Romans is called dactylic 
hexameter. It consists of six feet, of which the fifth is a dactyl, the 
sixth a spondee, and each of the others may be either a dactyl or a 
spondee. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and Virgil's ^Eneid are in this 
verse. Longfellow has imitated this verse in his Evangeline; but, as 
the English language does not readily furnish spondees, he has for the 
most part been obliged to take trochees instead of them. 

All were sub | dued and | low as the | murmurs of | love, and the | great sun 
Looked with the | eye 6f | love threugh the | golden | vap&rs a | round him. 

Great sun makes a spondee; but -dued and, eye o/, golden, said -round 
him are trochees. 

Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic verse, 
for instance, admits of any of the other feet ; as, 

Through the | wide rent | In Time's | eter | nal veil. 
Murmuring, | and with | him fled | the shades | 6f night. 
Before | all tern | pies the up | right heart | and pure. 
A mind | ndt td | be" changed | by place | 6r time. 

Anapestic verse often begins with an iambus; as, 

HS thought | as a sage | though he felt | as a man.— Beattie. 
In modern poetry anapests are frequently mingled with iambuses, 
and dactyls with trochees ; as, 

L6 ! while | we are gaz | ing, In swift | er haste 

Stream down | the snows | till the air | is white.— Bryant. 

Beautiful | Evelyn | Hope is | dead ! 

Sit and | watch by her | side an | hour.— E. Browning. 



EXERCISES. 287 



POETICAL PAUSES. 

The final pause is a pause naturally made at the end of a verse, 
whether a pause is demanded by the sense or not; as, 

. " His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast 
Of some great admiral were but a wand."— Milton. 

The csesural pause is a pause in the verse, made naturally in reading 
verse correctly. 

In the longer verses it is made where the verse seems to be divided 
into two nearly equal verses ; as, 

" But they smile, they find a music || centred in a doleful song 
Steaming up a lamentation || and an ancient tale of wrong."— Tennyson. 

In the shorter verses there is no pause, unless one is demanded by 
the sense ; as, « Fa i nt with famine, Hiawatha 

Started from his bed of branches." — Longfellow. 

In the first verse there is a pause, which is demanded by the sense; 
in the second there is no pause. 

In almost every heroic verse there is a pause, but no pause inde- 
pendent of the sense; as, 

" The steer and lion || at one crib shall meet, 
And harmless serpents || lick the pilgrim's feet." — Pope. 

Each of these verses has in the middle a pause, but no other pause 
than such as would be proper in prose between the subject and the 
predicate. 

The pause may be made to fall near the beginning or the end of the 
verse. By having a pause placed at falls in the following passage the 
verse is made to imitate the motion of the falling leaf, falls expressing 
the loosening from the branch, the rest of the verse expressing the 
gentle floating off to the ground: 

"And turning yellow, 
Falls, and floats adown the air."— Tennyson. 



EXEKCISES FOE SCANNING AND PAESING. 

The beginner in scanning is advised first to read the verse slowly, 
so that he may see which syllables are accented. Then he may place a 
mark over each of the accented syllables. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
He will see that the accented syllables are cur, tolls, knell, part, and day. 
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | ing day. 



288 PROSODY. 

He will see that the feet, consisting each of an unaccented followed by 
an accented syllable, are iambuses. 

I am monarch of all I survey. 
The accented syllables are mon, all, and vey. 

I am monarch of all I survey. 

I am mon | arch of all 1 1 survey. 
The feet, consisting each of three syllables, the two first unaccented 
and the last accented, are anapests. 

Hark! his hands the lyre explore. 
The accented syllables are hark, hands, lyre, and jolore. 

Hark! his hands the lyre explore. 

Hark ! his | hands the | lyre ex | plore. 
The feet, consisting each of two syllables, the first accented and the 
second unaccented, are trochees ; plore is an additional accented syllable. 

Lochiel * Lochiel, "beware of the day. 

Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day. 

Lochi | el, Lochi | el, "beware | of the day. 
This is anapestic verse; the first foot is an iambus. 

Wearily flaggeth my soul in the desert. 
Accented syllables, wear, flag, soul, and des. 

Wearily flaggeth my soul in the desert. 

Wearily | flaggeth my | soul in the | desert. 
Dactylic verse; the last foot is a trochee. 

Deep in the wave is a coral grove. 

Deep in the wave is a coral grove. 

Deep in the | wave is a | coral | grove. 
The two first feet are dactyls; the third is a trochee; and grove is an 
additional accented syllable. In this poem there are four accented 
syllables in each verse; but the feet are iambuses, trochees, anapests, 
or dactyls. 



Hark! hist! 


Of space 


Around 


All trace 


I list ! 


Efface 


The hounds 


Of sound. 



On thy fair bosom, silver lake, 
*The wild swan spreads his snowy sail, 
And round his breast the ripples break, 

As down he bears before the gale. 
On thy fair bosom, waveless stream, 

The dipping paddle echoes far, 
And flashes in the moonlight gleam, 

And bright reflects the polar star. — Percival. 



* Pronounced lock-e-el. 



EXERCISES. 289 

The quiet August noon has come, 

A slumberous silence fills the sky, 
The fields are still, the woods are dumb, 

In glassy sleep the waters lie.— Bryant. 

Here to the houseless child of want 

My door is open still; 
And though my portion is but scant, 

I give it with good will. 
Then, pilgrim, turn; thy cares forego; 

All earth-born cares are wrong: 
Man wants but little here below, 

Nor wants that little long.— Goldsmith. 

Eternal blessings crown my earliest friend, 

And round his dwelling guardian saints attend! 

Blest be that spot where cheerful guests retire 

To pause from toil and trim their evening fire ! 

Blest that abode where want and pain repair, 

And every stranger finds a ready chair! 

Blest be those feasts with simple plenty crowned, 

Where all the ruddy family around 

Laugh at the jests or pranks that never fail, 

Or sigh with pity at some mournful tale, 

Or press the bashful stranger to his food, 

And learn the luxury of doing good !— Goldsmith. 

The dews of summer night did fall; * 

The moon, sweet regent of the sky, 
Silvered the walls of Cumnor Hall 

And many an oak that grew thereby.— Mickle. 

Ah! my heart is weary waiting- 
Waiting for the May- 
Waiting for the pleasant rambles, 
Where the fragrant hawthorn brambles, 
With the woodbine alternating, 

Scent the dewy way. 
Ah! my heart is weary waiting- 
Waiting for the May— McCarthy. 

When around thee dying, 
Autumn leaves are lying, 

O! then remember me. 
And at night, when gazing 
On the gay hearth blazing, 

O! still remember me. 
Then should music, stealing 
All the soul of feeling, 
To thy heart appealing, 

Draw one tear from thee, 
Then let memory bring thee 
Strains I used to sing thee— 

O! then remember me.— Moore. 

25 



290 PROSODY. 

The soul, secured in her existence, smiles 

At the drawn dagger and defies its point. 

The stars shall fade away, the sun himself 

Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years; 

But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth, 

Unhurt amidst the war of elements, 

The wreck of matter, and the crush of worlds.— Addison. 

Other joys 

Are but toys; 

Only this 

Lawful is; 

For our skill 

Breeds no ill.— Chalkhill. 

The sea! the sea! the open sea! 

The blue, the fresh, the ever free! 

Without a mark, without a bound, 

It runs the earth's wide regions round; 

It plays with the clouds ; it mocks the skies ; 

Or like a cradled creature lies.— Procter. 

Deep in the wave is a coral grove 

Where the purple mullet and gold-fish rove; 

Where the sea-flower spreads its leaves of blue 

That never are wet with the falling dew, 

But in bright and changeful beauty shine 

Far down in the green and glassy brine.— Percival. 

'T is the last rose of summer 

Left blooming alone; 
All her lovely companions 

Are faded and gone ; 
No flower of her kindred, 

No rosebud is nigh, 
To reflect back her blushes 

Or give sigh for sigh. 
I'll not leave thee, thou lone one, 

To pine on the stem; 
Since the lovely are sleeping, 

Go sleep thou with them. 
Thus kindly I scatter 

Thy leaves o'er the bed 
Where thy mates of the garden 

Lie scentless and dead. 
So soon may I follow 

When friendships decay, 
And from Love's shining circle 

The gems drop away! 
When true hearts lie withered, 

And fond ones are flown, 
O ! who would inhabit 

This bleak world alone \— Moore. 

Remark. — In this poem the lines are connected in twos, so that in the two lines 
there are four anapests. 'T is the last | rose of sum | mer left bloom | ing alone. 



EXERCISES. 291 

Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers that lately sprang and stood 

In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood? 

Alas! they all are in their graves; the gentle race of flowers 

Are lying in their lowly beds, with the fair and good of ours. 

The rain is falling where they lie; but the cold November rain 

Calls not from out the gloomy earth the lovely ones again.— Bryant. 

Autumn's sighing, Storms are trailing; 

Moaning, dying; Winds are wailing, 

Clouds are flying Howling, railing 

On like steeds; At each door. 

While their shadows 'Midst this trailing, 

O'er the meadows Howling, railing, 

Walk like widows List the wailing 

Decked in weeds. Of the poor.— Bead. 

We have been friends together, 

In sunshine and in shade, 
Since first beneath the chestnut-trees 

In infancy we played. 
But coldness dwells within thy heart, 

A cloud is on thy brow. 
We have been friends together— 

Shall a light word part us now? — Mrs. Norton. 

Farewell! but whenever you welcome the hour 

That awakens the night-song of mirth in your bower, 

Then think of the friend who once welcomed it too, 

And forgot his own griefs to be happy with you. 

His griefs may return— not a hope may remain 

Of the few that have brightened his pathway of pain — 

But he ne'er will forget the short vision that threw 

Its enchantment around him while lingering with you.— Moore. 

In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast; 

In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest; 

In the spring a lovelier iris changes on the burnished dove; 

In the spring a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love. 

[Tennyson. 
Maud Muller on a summer's day 

Raked the meadow sweet with hay. 

Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth 

Of simple beauty and rustic health. 

Singing she wrought, and her merry glee 

The mock-bird echoed from his tree.— Whittier. 

Meanwhile the Tuscan army, 

Right glorious to behold, 
Came flashing back the noonday light, 
Rank behind rank, like surges bright 

Of a broad sea of gold. 
Four hundred trumpets sounded 

A peal of warlike glee 
As that great host, with measured tread 
And spears advanced and ensigns spread, 
Rolled slowly towards the bridge's head, 

Where stood the dauntless three.— Macaulay. 



292 PROSODY. 

Come into the garden, Maud; 

For the black bat, night, has flown! 
Come into the garden, Maud ; 

I am here at the gate alone; 
And the woodbine spices are wafted abroad, 

And the musk of the roses blown.— Tennyson. 

The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. — Byron. 

Lochiel, Lochiel ! beware of the day 

When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array! 

For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 

And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight.— Campbell. 

Through the night, through the night, 

In the saddest unrest, 
Wrapped in white, all in white, 

With her babe on her breast, 
Walks the mother so pale, 
Staring out on the gale 

Through the night! 

Through the night, through the night, 

Where the sea lifts the wreck, 
Land in sight, close in sight, 

On the surf-flooded deck 
Stands the father so brave, 
Driving on to his grave 

Through the night \— Stoddard. 

With fingers weary and worn, 
With eyelids heavy and red, 
A woman sat in unwomanly rags, 
Plying her needle and thread- 
Stitch! stitch! stitch!— 
In poverty, hunger, and dirt; 
And still with a voice of dolorous pitch 
She sang the "Song of the Shirt!"— Hood. 

O! breathe not his name! let it sleep in the shade 

Where cold and unhonored his relics are laid: 

Sad, silent, and dark be the tears that we shed 

As the night-dew that falls on the grave o'er his head. 

But the night-dew that falls, though in silence it weeps, 
Shall brighten with verdure the grave where he sleeps; 
And the tear that we shed, though in secret it rolls, 
Shall long keep his memory green in our souls.— Moore. 

Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, 
As his corse to the rampart we hurried ; 

Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero we buried.— Wolfe. 



EXERCISES. 293 

I am monarch of all I survey— 

My right there is none to dispute ; 
From the center all round to the sea 

I am lord of the fowl and the brute. 
O solitude! where are the charms 

That sages have seen in thy face? 
Better dwell in the midst of alarms 

Than reign in this horrible place. — Cowper. 

Abou Ben Adhem— may his tribe increase!— 

Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace 

And saw within the moonlight in his room, 

Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 

An angel writing in a book of gold. 

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 

And to the presence in the room he said, 

"What writest thou?" The vision raised its head 

And, with a look made all of sweet accord, 

Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord." 

"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," 

Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low, 

But cheerly still, and said, " I pray thee, then, 

Write me as one that loves his fellow-men." 

The angel wrote and vanished. The next night 

It came again, with a great wakening light, 

And showed the names whom love of God had blessed— 

And, lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.— Hunt. 

Under a spreading chestnut-tree 

The village smithy stands: 
The smith, a mighty man is he. 

With large and sinewy hands; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 

Are strong as iron bands.— Longfellow. 

Our bugles sang truce; for the night-cloud had lowered. 

And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky; 
And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered, 

The weary to sleep, and the wounded to die.— Campbell. 

O! dear to memory are those hours 
When every pathway led to flowers, 
When sticks of peppermint possessed 
A scepter's power to sway the breast, 
And heaven was round us while we fed 
On rich, ambrosial gingerbread.— Eliza Cook. 

'T is pleasant through the loopholes of retreat 

To peep at such a world, to see the stir 

Of the great Babel and not feel the crowd, 

To hear the roar she sends through all her gates 

At a safe distance, where the dying sound 

Falls a soft murmur on the uninjured ear.— Cowper. 

A vile conceit in pompous words expressed 
Is like a clown in regal purple dressed.— Pope. 



294 PROSODY. 

Let firm, well-hammered soles protect thy feet 

Through freezing snows and rains and soaking sleet.— Gay. 

Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, 

And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows; 

But when loud surges lash the sounding shore 

The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar: 

When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw 

The line too labors, and the words move slow: 

Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, 

Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main.— Pope. 

They say that in his prime, 
Ere the pruning-knife of time 

Cut him down, 
Not a better man was found 
By the crier on his round 

Through the town.— Holmes. 

And darkness and doubt are now flying away; 

No longer I roam in conjecture forlorn. 
So breaks on the traveler faint and astray 

The bright and the balmy effulgence of morn. 
See truth, love, and mercy in triumph descending, 

And nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom! 
On the cold cheek of death smiles and roses are blending, 

And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb.— Beattie. 

Stand here by my side and turn, I pray, 

On the lake below thy gentle eyes ; 
The clouds hang over it heavy and gray, 

And dark and silent the water lies; 
And out of that frozen mist the snow 
In wavering flakes begins to flow; 

Flake after flake, 
They sink in the dark and silent lake.— Bryant. 

Speak and tell us, our Ximena, looking northward far away, 

O'er the camp of the invader, o'er the Mexican array, 

Who is losing? Who is winning? Are they far, or come they near? 

Look abroad and tell us, sister, whither rolls the storm we hear ?— Whittier. 

Wearily flaggeth my soul in the desert, 

Wearily, wearily. 
Sand, ever sand, not a gleam from the fountain; 
Sun, ever sun, not a shade from the mountain; 
Wave after wave flows the sea of the desert, 

Drearily, drearily. — Bulwer. 

Somewhat back from the village street 
Stands the old-fashioned country-seat: 
Across its antique portico 
Tall poplar-trees their shadows throw; 
And from its station in the hall 
An ancient time-piece says to all, 
" For ever — never — 
Never — for ever." 



EXERCISES, 295 

Merrily swinging on briar and weed, 
Near to the nest of his little dame, 
Over the mountain-side and mead, . 
Robert of Lincoln is telling his name: 
Bob o' Link, Bob o' Link, 
Spink, spank, spink; 
Snug and safe is that nest of ours, 
Hidden among the summer flowers; 
Chee, chee, chee.— Bryant. 

Hark! his hands the lyre explore; 

Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o'er, 

Scatters from her golden urn 

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn.— Gray. 

The harp that once through Tara's halls 

The soul of music shed 
Now hangs as mute on Tara's walls 

As if that soul were fled. 
So sleeps the pride of former days; 

So glory's thrill is o'er, 
And hearts that once beat high for praise 

Now feel that pulse no more. — Moore. 

Morn on the waters! and purple and bright 

Bursts on the billows the flushing of light! 

O'er the glad waves, like a child of the sun, 

See, the tall vessel goes gallantly on! 

Full to the breeze she unbosoms her sail, 

And her pennant streams onward, like hope in the gale! 

The winds come around her in murmur and song, 

And the surges rejoice as they bear her along l—Hervey. 

The mothers of our forest-land! 

On old Kentucky's soil 
How shared they with each dauntless band 

War's tempest and life's toil.— Gallagher. 

Lo! in the middle of the wood 

The folded leaf is wooed from out the bud 

With winds upon the branch, and there 

Grows green and broad, and takes no care, 

Sun-steeped at noon, and in the moon 

Nightly dew-fed; and turning yellow, 

Falls, and floats adown the air. 

Lo! sweetened with the summer light, 

The full-juiced apple, waxing over-mellow, 

Drops in a silent autumn night. 

All its allotted length of days 

The flower ripens in its place, 

Ripens and fades and falls, and hath no toil, 

Fast-rooted in the fruitful soil.— Tennyson. 

Were half the power that fills the world with terror, 
Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts, 

Given to redeem the human mind from error, 
There were no need of arsenals or forts.— Longfellow. 



296 PROSODY. 

Thou art gone to the grave ; but we will not deplore thee ; 

Though sorrows and darkness encompass the tomb, 
The Savior has passed through its portals before thee, 

And the lamp of his love is thy guide through the gloom.— Heber. 

The day is ending, Through clouds like ashes 

The night is descending, The red sun flashes 

The marsh is frozen, On village windows 

The river dead. That glimmer red.— Longfellow. 

To each his sufferings: all are men, 

Condemned alike to groan; 
The tender for another's pain, 

The unfeeling for his own. 
Yet, ah! why should they know their fate, 
Since sorrow never comes too late, 

And happiness too swiftly flies? 
Thought would destroy their paradise. 
No more— where ignorance is bliss 

'Tis folly to be wise.— Gray. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air.— Gray, 

Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime, 

Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle 
Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime? 

Know ye the land of the cedar and vine, 

Where the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine ; 

Where the light wings of zephyr, oppressed with perfume, 

Wax faint o'er the gardens of Gul in her bloom; 

Where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit, 

And the voice of the nightingale never is mute; 

Where the tints of the earth and the hues of the sky, 

In color though varied, in beauty may vie, 

And the color of ocean is deepest in dye; 

Where the virgins are soft as the roses they twine, 

And all, save the spirit of man, is divine 1— Byron. 

Note.— If one verse is made to run into the next, this passage consists 
entirely of dactyls except in a few places ; as, Know ye the | land where the | 
cypress and | myrtle are | emblems of | deeds that are | done in their | clime, 
where the [ rage of the | vulture, the,| love of the | turtle now | melt into | 
sorrow, now | madden to | etc. 



APPENDIX 



NOTE A.— OFFICE OF GRAMMAR. (Page 11.) 

In some minds there seems to be great confusion with respect to the office 
of grammar. Dean Alford says, " The English language has become more idio- 
matic than most others; and the tendency is still going on among us, to set 
aside accurate grammatical construction, and to speak rather according to 
idiom than according to rule." This inaccurate language expresses inaccurate 
thought ; it shows ignorance of what idiom is and what grammar is. To speak 
"according to idiom" is to speak "according to rule;" for the idioms of a 
language are principles of the language established by " the usage of the best 
writers and speakers," and these principles must be set forth in the grammar. 
If it were the established usage among " the best writers and speakers " to use 
the expression me is instead of I am, the grammarian would have to state that 
fact ; that statement would be a " rule," and it would be " according to rule " to 
say me is. 

Dean Alford's object was to justify some loose expressions which are not 
idiomatic. 

NOTE B.— PRONOUNS. (Page 32.) 

Parsing is much simplified by regarding pronouns as nouns merely and 
giving them gender, number, and person of their own. In the grammars is 
found the rule, " Pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, number, 
and person." Let us take such a sentence as "I see you." This is a sentence 
complete in itself, the pronouns having no reference whatever to the names of 
the persons speaking and spoken to. The pronoun I might be used by one who 
never had a name, and would be as intelligible as if the speaker were favored 
with a Spanish accumulation of names. Neither I nor you has an antecedent, 
and how will the pupil apply the rule ? * 

*"Jis a pronoun; ... its antecedent is the name, understood, of the 
person speaking."— Harvey's English Grammar, page 54. One person may say to 
another, "I do not know your name, and you do not know mine." Are the 
names understood here? If they are understood, it must be by a highly-favored 
few. Another grammarian goes further still and makes, not the names, but the 
human beings themselves the antecedents : " We is a pronoun, personal, its ante- 
cedent the company of which the speaker is one, with which it agrees in the first 
[person], plural [number], common [gender]." " Yours is a pronoun, ... its 
antecedent the person spoken to, with which it agrees," etc. — Holbrookes Complete 
English Grammar, page 167, and page 172. How human beings, if of respectable 
size, can get into an English sentence is a question requiring some thought. 

(297) 



298 APPENDIX. 

I is singular, not because it stands for a singular noun, but because in itself 
it denotes but one object. He is not masculine because it stands for a masculine 
noun, but it is masculine in itself. When we refer to a male we use he because 
he expresses our meaning, while she does not ; just as we would say " that man" 
and not "that woman" when pointing to a male. "John studies, and he will 
improve." Here he is masculine, not on account of any grammatical depend- 
ence upon John, but because from its own meaning it denotes a male, just as the 
noun John does. We avoid saying, "John studies, and she will improve," not 
because the expression is ungrammatical,h\it because it is nonsensical; just as it 
would be a violation of sense, not of grammar, to say, "John studies, and this girl 
John will improve." "We went to see the Ohio, and we greatly admired it;" 
"We went to see the Ohio, and we greatly admired the beautiful river" It has 
no closer grammatical connection with Ohio than river has. 



NOTE C— EEL ATI VE WHAT. (Page 86.) 

The relative what is generally said to be "a compound relative pronoun, 
including both the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that which or 
the thing rvhich." The word compound signifies " composed of two or more words," 
and is inapplicable to a simple word like what. Though this word should be 
admitted to be equivalent to two or more words, it is not composed of two or more 
words, as inkstand is. What is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and 
includes nothing else. 

Compare these two sentences : " I saw whom I wanted to see ;" "I saw what I 
wanted to see." 

If what in the latter is equivalent to that which, or the thing which, whom in the 
former is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom; and who in this sentence, 
" Who steals my purse steals trash," is equivalent to he who, or the man who. And, 
on the same principle, when the relative is omitted the antecedent should be 
represented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent. Thus, "I saw the 
man I wanted to see." Here man should be represented as equivalent to man 
whom. 

The cause of the error in respect to what is that the antecedent is never 
expressed with it. When the antecedent to who is omitted no difficulty is felt, 
because we may supply the antecedent without changing the pronoun. But as 
the word what does not allow the antecedent to be expressed before it, we are 
apt to suppose that it has no antecedent implied. Those who take this view 
seem not to be aware that, if what has no antecedent expressed or implied, it 
does not come under their definition of a relative pronoun. 

If what is not a simple relative used when the antecedent is omitted, it fol- 
lows that the antecedent may be omitted when persons are spoken of, but never 
when things are referred to. " I saw the thing which I wished to see." Here we 
can not omit the antecedent thing and say, " I saw which I wished to see." Such 
a sentence as this would seem sufficient to show the nature of what. Whenever 
we omit the antecedent we at once put what in the place of which. 

The relative that was formerly used in many cases where we use what, that is, 
with the antecedent omitted. A few examples of this will help us to ascertain 
the nature of what. 

" We speak that we do know."— Eng. Bible. " I am that I am."— lb. " Eschewe 
that wicked is."— Gower. " Is it possible he should know what he is, and be that 
he is."— Shakespeare. " Gather the sequel by that went before."— lb. 
"Who had him seen imagine mote thereby 
That whylome hath of Hercules been told."— Spenser. 



COMPOUND RELATIVES. 299 

In these examples that is a relative, and is exactly synonymous with what. No 
one would contend that that stands for itself and its antecedent at the same 
time* The antecedent is omitted because it is indefinite or easily supplied. 

Some consider that in such sentences as these an adjective (demonstrative 
adjective-pronoun), and say that the relative is understood; but if we examine 
carefully, we shall see that this is not correct. In the first quotation from the 
English Bible that is a translation of the Greek relative, and in the second it is 
a translation of the Hebrew relative. 

It is no objection to this view of the nature of what that the antecedent can 
not be expressed before it. There are many words that are used in particular 
circumstances, and in no others. That is used for the, and one for a or an, when 
the nouns are omitted. If we omit the nouns we use that and one, and if we 
express the nouns we use the and a or an. " His conduct was that of a tyrant ;" 
" His life was one of meanness." If we supply the nouns here, we can not retain 
that and one, but must change them to the and a. Thus, " His conduct was the 
conduct of a tyrant;" "His life was a life of meanness." The pronouns, ours, 
yours, etc., are used only when the noun is omitted ; if the noun is supplied, ours 
must be changed to our. Thus, " Your house is larger than ours;" " Your house 
is larger than our house." The relative that may be the object of a preposition 
coming after it ; but if we place the preposition first, we must change that to 
whom or which. Thus, "This is the man that he spoke o/;" "This is the man 
of whom he spoke." 

In the Anglo-Saxon language the neuter gender of hwa {icho) was not hwilc 
(which), but whaet {what) ; and the genitive and dative cases, whacs and icham, 
were the same in all the genders. This shows that ichat originally had the same 
relation to nouns of the neuter gender that who had to those of the masculinc.f 

NOTE D.— COMPOUND RELATIVES. (Page 37.) 

These words, like the relative what, have been said to be " equivalent to the 
relative and the antecedent." The same answer may be made here as in the 
case of what. The antecedent is omitted, and not included in the relative. 

These words are compound relatives, it is true ; but they are not com- 
pounded of the relative and the antecedent, but of the relative and the adverb 
ever. This adverb primarily refers to time, but also means in any degree, and is 
sometimes used as " a word of enforcement or emphasis;" as, "He studies as 

*It seems that this assertion was rashly made. "A double relative pronoun 
represents both itself and its antecedent."— KerVs Shorter Course. In other words, 
according to the author's definition of a pronoun, what, whoever, etc., are used in 
stead of themselves and in stead of their antecedents. A person looking at ichat 
may think he is looking at what; but he finds that he is only looking at some- 
thing used in stead of what! 

f Ne rxdde ge thset hwset David dyde, have ye not read (that) what David did 
(Luc. vi, 3). — March's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, page 179. " Pray do not talk of aught 
what I have said."— Beaumont and Fletcher. 

The Germans use was (what) in many instances where we use which or that; 
"Alles was ich sah gefiel mir" (All what I saw pleased me). 

This view of what is beginning to be adopted by grammarians. Dr. Bullions 
quotes what is said on this subject in "Butler's Practical Grammar" and says, 
"These remarks appear to me just, and conclusive on this point." — Analyt. and 
Prac. Eng. Grammar, p. 232. Mason in the seventeenth edition of his Grammar 
says. " It is, however, an utter mistake to treat what as though it were made up 
of, or were equivalent to, that which. It is simply a relative with its antecedent 
understood, just as when we say. ' Who steals my purse steals trash.' It is like 
the German was, before which the antecedent das is commonly omitted, though 
it may be expressed." 



300 APPENDIX. 

much as ever he can." In composition with the relative it is generally " a word 
of enforcement or emphasis." 

Thus, " Whoever sins will suffer." This means that any one without excep- 
tion who sins will suffer. The adverb has no influence on the nature of the 
relative. It was anciently written separately. 

The impropriety of considering the compound relative equivalent to the 
antecedent and the relative may he seen from such sentences as the following : 
"I love whoever loves me." Here whoever is in the nominative case, and of 
course can not be the object of the verb love. The object of that verb is omitted 
because it is indefinite. 

The antecedent was sometimes expressed ; as, " No man knoweth the Father 
save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal him."— English Bible. 
"Blessed is he whosoever shall not be offended in me."— lb. 
"And thither also came all other creatures, 
Whatever life or motion do retaine." — Spenser. 

NOTE E.— COMMON GENDER (Page 51.) 

Most English grammarians contend that there is no such thing as the 
common gender. They assert that such words as parent, cousin, etc., should be 
considered masculine or feminine, according to the way in which they are 
applied. 

But we can not always tell to what sex such words are applied. In this 
sentence, "John visited his two cousins,' ' we can not say that the word cousins 
is masculine, as both cousins may be females ; nor feminine, as both may be 
males; nor masculine and feminine, as both may be males, or both females; nor 
masculine or feminine, as one cousin may be a male, and the other a female. 

But even if we do know the sex of the persons denoted by such nouns, Ave do 
not get our knowledge from the word, but from some other source. The word 
father at once suggests the idea of a male, and the word mother that of a female ; 
but the word parent conveys no idea of sex at all. 

When we classify several objects we select one point or more in which these 
objects are alike and leave every other circumstance out of view. The name 
applied to them has reference to those points only on which the classification is 
based. Thus, when we apply the term quadruped to a certain class of animals 
we leave out of view every circumstance except that of having four feet. Size, 
color, form, etc., are not considered; the word quadruped has no reference to 
these properties. For a similar reason such words as parent and cousin leave out 
the idea of sex altogether. These words were intended to express a certain 
degree of kindred without reference to sex. The word fool merely denotes a 
silly person, sex being entirely disregarded. Every fool must be a male or a 
female, it is true ; so every quadruped must be horned or hornless. It would 
be just as correct to say that the word quadruped has reference to horns as that 
the word fool has reference to sex. 

NOTE P.— POSSESSIVE CASE OF PKONOUNS. (Page 60.) 

Dr. Webster contends, and the authors of some recent works say he has 
demonstrated, that mine, thine, his, ours, yours, hers, and theirs are not in the pos- 
sessive case, but in the nominative or in the objective. It seems strange that 
Dr. Webster was not convinced of the erroneousness of his position by the very 
quotations he has brought forward to support it. One of these quotations is, 
"You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was." Compare this with "You 



POSSESSIVE CASE OF THE PBONOUXS. 301 

may imagine what kind of faith John's was." In the latter sentence John's per- 
forms precisely the same office that theirs does in the former. If theirs is in the 
nominative case, so is John's. 

Dr. Webster's chief argument is that a noun may be expressed after the 
possessive case of the noun, but not after any of these pronouns. Even if this 
statement were correct, his point would not be proved. The doctrine which we 
maintain is that ours, yours, etc., are forms of the possessive case used only when 
the noun is not expressed; and that when the noun is expressed the other 
forms, our, your, etc., must be employed. Dr. Webster says that prepositions are 
"so called from their being put before other words." The relative that maybe 
the object of a preposition, but the preposition must be put after it; as, " This is 
the man that I spoke of." If the preposition is put before, that must be changed 
to whom; as, " This is the man of whom I spoke." This illustration shows that a 
word may sustain a certain relation in particular circumstances, which circum- 
stances being changed, another word must be used to express the same relation. 
This is the principle for which we contend in regard to these pronouns. 

But it is not true that a noun can not be supplied after any of the pronouns 
which Dr. Webster has thus classed together. One of his quotations is from 
Locke : " It is for no other reason but that his agrees with our ideas." Here the 
noun idea may be supplied after his, and yet Dr. Webster places his in the nomi- 
native case. Nor is it true that the noun may always be supplied after the 
possessive case of a noun. Dr. Webster says, " We say, ' a soldier of the king's,' 
or 'a soldier of the king's soldiers'; but we can not say 'an acquaintance of 
yours acquaintance,' " meaning, probably, acquaintances. We do not deny to any 
one the physical power of saying " a soldier of the king's soldiers "; but certainly 
he who does utter the words is not speaking English. 

Mr. Kerl says, "Ours, yours, hers, theirs, and generally mine and thine, are 
respectively equivalent to our, your, her, etc., and the name of the object pos- 
sessed. These two words should be parsed in stead of the other word." That 
is, undertaking to parse a word, you instantly leave it, and go to parsing some- 
thing else ! He gives as an example, " He ate his apple, you ate yours [your 
apple], and I ate mine [my apple]," and says, "Fours is not governed by a noun 
understood, for the noun could not be put after it;" as if when one asserts that 
a certain form is used only when the noun is understood, he asserts that it may 
be used when the noun is expressed ! Mr. Kerl says that in such expressions 
as "The idle are generally mischievous" the noun persons must be supplied, 
which he does in the following manner : " The idle [persons] are generally 
mischievous." Does Mr. Kerl intend to say that this is good English? If persons 
is expressed, the must be omitted ; as, " Idle persons are generally mischievous." 
Persons can not be supplied for any other purpose than to denote the grammatical 
relation. If Mr. Kerl should carry out his principles he would say, "Idle does 
not belong to a noun understood, for the noun could not be put after it." 

In the latest edition of Webster's Dictionary Dr. Webster's doctrine is aban- 
doned: "Of the two forms of the possessive, your and yours, the first is used 
when attributive and followed by the noun to which it belongs ; as, your hand, 
your book; the second when attributive, but having the noun understood; as, my 
hand and yours; and also when predicative ; as, this hat is yours." * 

-"'That book is hers, not yours: First method. Hers is a pronoun: (why?) 
possessive; it represents both the possessor and the thing possessed; its ante- 
cedent is J book '; neuter gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its 
antecedent: Rule IX : nominative case" etc.— Harvey's English Grammar, p. 56. If, 
O caviler ! Tiers is nothing of itself, but only a representative of her book, why is 
it not of the neuter gender as to the book part of it? But why treat the her part 
so disrespectfully as to leave it altogether out of view? If hers stands for her 
book, it should be said to be of the feminine-neuter gender. 



302 



APPENDIX. 



NOTE G.— AKTICLES. (Page 66.) 

Many writers make of the articles a distinct part of speech, though they can 
not form such a definition of the adjective as will apply to one, that, this, those, 
etc., without including an and the. One and that limit the meaning of nouns ; so 
do an and the. The writers referred to seem to have come to the subject with a 
" foregone conclusion ' ' that these words do form a distinct part of speech, for 
which conclusion they were to find the best reasons they could. 

Mr. Goold Brown bases his opinion on the fact that an and the differ in signi- 
fication from one and that, and on the frequent use of the articles. {See Brown's 
Grammar of Grammars, p. 219.) If difference in signification is a sufficient reason 
for placing words in different classes, almost every word should form a distinct 
part of speech. The argument from frequent use would make a separate part of 
speech of the conjunction and. Mr. Fowler says, " Still, though they (an and the) 
agree severally with one and that, they also differ from them. They can not 
either of them, like one and that, form the predicate of a proposition. Nor can 
either of them stand by itself as the subject of a proposition."— English Lan- 
guage in its Elements and Forms, p. 217. Such reasoning as this would make a 
distinct part of speech of the adjective every, which can neither "form the 
predicate of a proposition " nor " stand by itself as the subject of a proposition." 
But even if an and the stood by themselves in this respect, this peculiarity would 
form no grounds for placing them in a separate class. The only point to be con- 
sidered is whether they limit the meaning of nouns, as limiting adjectives do.* 

Though it is true that there is generally a difference in signification between 
an and one and between the and that, this is not always the case. When the noun 
is omitted one, that, or its plural those, are used with the exact signification of an 
and the. Thus, " The course of life is short, that of glory eternal;" "The duties 
of men differ from those of women ;" " This plant is one that grows rapidly." In 
these examples that and those are used in the sense of the, and one is used in the 
sense of a. If the nouns are supplied, it will be seen that the must take the 
place of that and those, and a must take the place of one. Thus, " The course of 
life is short, the course of glory eternal;" "The duties of men differ from the 
duties of women;" "This plant is a plant that grows rapidly." It would not 
convey the same idea to say, " The course of life is short, that course of glory 
eternal;" " The duties of men differ from those duties of women;" "This plant 
is one plant that grows rapidly." 

Thus we see that if, on account of peculiarity of signification, we must make 
a distinct part of speech of the articles, one and that must be placed in the class. 

*" To show that we mean only one object of a kind, and no partiuclar one, or 
that we mean some particular object or objects, we generally place the word a 
or an, or the, before the name ; as, a tree, the tree, the trees. If I say, ' Give me a 
book, an apple,' you understand that any book or apple will answer my purpose ; 
but if I say, ' Give me the book, the books,' you understand that I want some par- 
ticular book or books."— KerVs Common- School Grammar, p. 4. To say nothing of 
this phraseology, which makes one word of a, an, and the, it may be asked, if I 
say, " Give me one book, one apple," whether any book or apple will not answer 
my purpose; and if I say, " Give me that book, those books," whether I do not 
want some particular book or books. Turn one leaf of the same work, and you 
find the following : " ' This tree bore five bushels of apples.' This is an adjective, 
because it makes the indefinite word tree mean a particular one ; and five is an 
adjective, because it makes the indefinite word bushels mean a particular num- 
ber." To say nothing as to the propriety of giving the name of indefinite words 
to tree and bushels, which express their appropriate ideas as definitely as any 
other word expresses its appropriate idea, if this and five, according to the writer's 
own representation, do not perform the office which he attributes to the article 
the, what office do they perform ? 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 303 

One in such expressions as that which is quoted above is really a particular form 
of the indefinite article, used when the noun is omitted ; while that and those, as 
they are employed in the other sentences, are forms of the definite article used 
in similar circumstances. 

We may see from this why an and the can not form predicates, nor stand by 
themselves as subjects. They have the other forms one and that to be assumed 
in such circumstances ; as, " That is a plant, and this is one;" " His end was that 
of a prodigal." 

The word article is derived from the Latin articulus, a joint, and was applied 
to the Greek words corresponding to the and who. These words were said to 
form the joints of the sentence; as, "This is the man who came." The former 
was called the prepositive article, the latter the postpositive. 



NOTE H.— DEGREES OF COMPARISON. (Page 69.) 

It seems strange that any one who has taken the trouble of thinking about 
the matter a single moment should not see the true nature of the comparative 
and superlative degrees. And yet we find in popular grammars such language 
as this : " The comparative denotes a higher state of the same quality than the 
positive ;" " The superlative denotes a higher or lower state of the same quality 
than that expressed by the comparative ;" " The comparative degree denotes an 
increase or diminution of the quality of the positive;" "The superlative degree 
denotes an increase or diminution of the quality of the positive to the highest 
or lowest degree." 

These extracts are given as samples. The same error, variously expressed, is 
found in most of the grammars in common use. Even a child may be convinced 
in a moment that such definitions are entirely wrong. Take a duodecimo book 
in the right hand and a smaller one in the left, and ask the child, " Is not this 
book in my right hand larger than this in my left ?" " Yes." " Is either of them 
a large book?" "No." "Does the word larger, then, denote more than large?" 
"No." 

" Of ways for becoming happier (not happy) I could never inquire out more 
than three."— Richter, translated by Carlyle. Does the comparative happier here 
denote a higher state of the quality than the positive happy? " Thou canst the 
wisest wiser make." Does the superlative wisest denote a higher state than the 
comparative wiser ? 

Another error in one of the definitions quoted above arises from taking the 
adverbs less and least as parts of the adjective. Granting the general definition 
to be correct, the comparative and superlative never denote a diminution. The 
adverbs less and least denote an increase of the degree of littleness just as much 
as is done by the adjectives less and least or by the adjectives smaller and smallest. 
There is no more propriety in making less a part of the adjective than there is in 
making rather or any other adverb a part of it. 



NOTE I.— DEFINITIONS OF THE VERB. (Page 73.) 

On account of its various uses there is some difficulty in forming a good 
definition of the verb. In German it is sometimes called zcitwort, that is, time- 
word, as if its distinctive character consisted in denoting time. The verb has 
been defined to be " a word that signifies to be, to do, or to suffer;" " a word that 
signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon;" " a word which expresses being, action, 
or state;" " a word which expresses being or doing or suffering." 



304 APPENDIX. 

None of these definitions expresses the character of the verb. The two first 
are mere generalizations of the meaning of the infinitive mood; the two last 
are definitions of abstract nouns rather than of verbs. The noun existence 
expresses being, the noun flight expresses action, the noun happiness expresses 
a state. The verb does something more than signify to be, to do, or to suffer ; it 
does something more than express being, action, or state. This something more 
is precisely what constitutes it a verb. It affirms or asserts the connection of the 
action, being, or state with the object that acts, is, or exists in a certain state. A 
noun expresses or names an action ; a verb asserts the performance of the action. 

The difficulty connected with the definition of the verb arises from the want 
of some more general term than affirm or assert — a term including command, wish, 
etc. The word affirm in its usual acceptation is too restricted ; but for want of a 
more general word we are obliged to make use of this, giving it a more general 
application than is allowed in common speech. " When I say that assertion is 
involved in the verb," says Sir John Stoddart, "I mean assertion to be taken 
largely, in contradistinction to nomination. The noun names a conception ; the 
verb implicitly or explicitly asserts its existence or non-existence ; and this it 
may do affirmatively or negatively, positively or hypothetically, by way of 
question, command, request, desire, or by any of the other indirect modes of 
implying existence on which moods of verbs in different languages depend."— 
Philosophy of Language, p. 123. 

In giving a definition of the verb the infinitive mood and the participle are 
not to be regarded, since they are not pure verbs. 



NOTE J.— ACTIVE-TBANSITIVE AND ACTIYE- 
INTKANSITIVE. (Page 74.) 

Some call transitive verbs active and intransitive verbs neuter. Others apply 
the term active to those which express action, and divide active verbs into active- 
transitive and active-intransitive, the former class including those active verbs 
which have, and the latter those which have not, an object. So far as gram- 
matical construction is concerned, the active-intransitive and the neuter verbs 
of these writers are the same thing. There might be more than a hundred 
different divisions of verbs, if we should divide them according to their sig- 
nification. There might be different classes according as the verbs express 
physical action or mental action or rational action or irrational action. But 
grammar has nothing to do with such things. The verbs run and rest belong 
to the same class so far as grammatical construction is concerned, neither of 
them taking an object. What has the grammarian to do with the fact that one of 
them denotes action and the other does not ? The absurdity of such a division 
is shown by the fact that those who attach so much importance to action are 
obliged to place such verbs as have, owe, cost among their active verbs. 

NOTE K.— SUBJUNCTIVE AND POTENTIAL. (Page 80.) 

The following are some of the reasons for rejecting the subjunctive and 
potential moods: 

The Subjunctive.— Those who examine the attempts of Murray and others 
to make a subjunctive mood for the English language will wonder at the com- 
pleteness of the failure. 

If such expressions as if thou loved, if thou have loved were in accordance 
with the idiom of the language, there would be some foundation for the sub- 



SUBJUNCTIVE AND POTENTIAL. 305 

junctive mood. But Murray says truly that such expressions " are not warranted 
by the general practice of correct writers." He follows Dr. Lowth and " the most 
correct and elegant writers in limiting the conjunctive termination of the prin- 
cipal verb to the second and third persons singular of the present tense." He 
means that the so-called present subjunctive is the same as the present indica- 
tive except in these two persons. Thus, his present subjunctive of the verb to 
love is " if I love, if thou love, if he love, if we love, if you love, if they love" The 
present indicative has |he same forms except in the second and third persons 
singular, thou loved, he loves. With the exception of this so-called present sub- 
junctive and the forms were and wert of the verb to he there is no peculiar form 
for the subjunctive mood. What is it that constitutes the subjunctive mood? 

"The subjunctive mood," says Murray, " represents a thing under a condi- 
tion, motive, wish, supposition, etc. ; and is preceded by a conjunction expressed 
or understood," and attended by another verb." The greater portion of this 
definition is a waste of words. It is the office of the conjunction itself to ex- 
press a condition, etc. If there is a condition expressed, there must, of course, 
be a clause affirming something depending on the condition ; and this clause 
must have its verb. So that after what relates to the conjunction is stated all 
the rest follows as a matter of course. A foreigner examining the principles of 
the language would suppose that there is a form used for the purposes men- 
tioned by Murray, and that this form is preceded by a conjunction and attended 
by another verb. Murray has a form for what he calls the present tense of the 
subjunctive ; does this form always belong to the subjunctive mood? If so, we 
have something tangible. But the inquirer soon discovers that this form is not 
always used to " represent a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, 
etc." (It may, however, represent a thing under an " etc." for all we know.) At 
least it is not always preceded by a conjunction, as the following examples will 
show : " Blow till thou burst thy wind."— Shakespeare. " Until the day dawn, and 
the day-star arise in your hearts."— English Bible. " Ye do show forth the Lord's 
death till he come." — Id. " Till thou return." — Watts. " Before the cock crow."— 
English Bible. " Come down ere my child die."— Id. 

" Till danger's troubled night depart, 
And the star of peace return." —Campbell. 
Here we have the subjunctive form without the subjunctive mood. 

Murray says, " The second and third persons, in both numbers, of the 
second future tense of all verbs, require a variation from the forms which 
those tenses have in the indicative mood. Thus, ' He will have completed the 
work by midsummer ' is the indicative form ; but the subjunctive is, ' If he shall 
have completed the work by midsummer.' " Well, here then is, according to 
Murray, one form for the indicative and another for the subjunctive. But we 
find this subjunctive used after adverbs and pronouns ; as, " When he shall have 
completed the work he will be paid;" " He will pay every one who shall have 
completed the work assigned him." 

If the subjunctive mood is not distinguished by its form, then it must be 
known by its " representing a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, 
etc., being preceded by a conjunction and attended by another verb." Any 
verb used in this way is then in the subjunctive mood. " If he desires it, I will 
remain ;" "If he desire it, I will remain ;" "If he should desire it, I will remain." 
Here are three forms all in the subjunctive mood, according to the definition. 
The indicative desires and the potential shoidd desire are transformed into the 
subjunctive by the force of if Truly there is "much virtue in if" You look 
at what is to all appearance a verb in the indicative mood, but if introduces it 
as the subjunctive. Our if is a very extraordinary herald. Heralds are usually 
quite subordinate to the persons they introduce ; but this herald gives character 

26 



306 APPENDIX. 

to all that follow him. Kings, queens, and emperors when heralded by him are 
all transformed to commanders of castles in Spain. 

Murray seems not to have understood correctly what is meant when it is 
said that conjunctions govern moods. If there were a distinct form for the 
subjunctive mood, then a conjunction might be said to govern the subjunctive, 
if it required that particular form to follow it ; but he represents the conjunc- 
tion not as governing but as creating the subjunctive. 

Murray's "present subjunctive" is not a present tense at all. He says 
himself that it expresses futurity. The use of this form is rendered perfectly 
intelligible if we suppose an ellipsis of the auxiliary verb. We can then easily 
understand why the " circumstances of contingency and futurity must concur" 
when this form is used. The conjunction expresses the contingency and the 
verb the futurity. We may also see why this form is used after some adverbs. 

" I will respect him, though he chide me;" that is, though he should chide. 
" He will not be pardoned, unless he repent;" unless he shall repent. " That thou 
appear not unto men to fast ;" that thou mayest appear. " Before the cock crow;" 
shall crow. " Till the Lord come;" shall come. 

The full form and the elliptical are sometimes used together, as in the fol- 
lowing passage : " If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath, from doing thy 
pleasure on my holy day; and call the sabbath a delight, the holy of the Lord, 
honorable; and shall honor him," etc.— English Bible. 

Here the verbs refer to the same time, and yet Murray would place turn and 
call in the present tense, and shalt honor in the future. Those who limit the 
subjunctive to the present and imperfect tenses would assign turn and call to 
the present subjunctive, and shalt honor to the future indicative — not only to 
different tenses, but to different moods, although there is no difference either in 
contingency or in time. 

The Potential.— It is difficult to imagine why this mood was invented. 
Here is a definition of it: 

" The potential mood declares, not the fact expressed by the verb, but only 
its possibility, or the liberty, power, will, or obligation of the subject with respect to 
it; as, 'The wind may blow;' 'We may walk;' 'lean swim;' 'Children should obey 
their parents.' " 

And here are some explanations: 

" The indicative and potential both declare, but they declare different things : 
the former declares what the subject does or is; the latter what it may or can, etc., 
do or be. The declaration made by the indicative is simple ; that made by the 
potential is always complex, containing the idea of liberty, power, etc., in connec- 
tion with the act." — Bullions 's Analytical English Grammar. 

" The potential mood is also used in principal propositions, not however to 
represent the actual, but that which at the time of speaking exists, or is sup- 
posed to exist, only in idea — that which is merely imagined or thought of"— 
Green's Elements of English Grammar. The examples given are, "We can sing;" 
" You may write ;" " He must read;" " They should obey the law." 

These are given as samples of the best explanations allowed by the nature 
of the case. 

All the forms assigned to this mood consist of two verbs, the one in the 
indicative mood, and the other in the infinitive ; as, " I can swim " (I am able to 
swim) ; " Children should obey " (ought to obey). Here can denotes power, and 
should denotes obligation, as expressly as these things are denoted by am able and 
ought. Can and should declare absolutely " the facts expressed by the verbs," 
which facts are power and obligation. " Children should—." " Children ought—." 
In the first of these expressions, as well as in the last, obligation is declared as a 
positive fact, belonging to " the actual," not existing or supposed to exist " only 



TIME AND ACTION. 307 

in idea,'' not " merely imagined or thought of" Should, as well as ought, is followed 
by the infinitive, to being omitted after should, as it is after bid, dare, feel, let, etc. 
One boy says to another, " You can not swim." " I can," replies the other. Does 
this boy intend to declare that his ability is " merely imagined or thought off" 

But, though "the indicative and potential both declare," "they declare 
different things." We should expect two verbs of different meanings to declare 
different things. I wish and I swim declare different things ; but we do not con- 
demn wish to the potential mood because it is so unfortunate as not to declare 
the same thing that is declared by swim. " I can swim." " I wish to swim." Can 
swim, it seems, is in the potential mood, because it does not declare " what the 
subject does or is," but only what it can do ; and because the declaration made 
by I swim is " simple," while that made by lean swim is " complex," " containing 
the idea of " ability, " in connection with the act " of swimming. 

Wish to swim should also be placed in the potential mood (unless we form an 
optative mood), because it does not declare " what the subject does or is, but only 
what it wishes to do ; and because the declaration made by I swim is " simple," 
while that made by I wish to swim is " complex," " containing the idea of " desire 
u in connection with the act of ' ' swimming. 

Can swim would naturally be considered by every one who sees them as two 
distinct verbs. The objections to this natural view of the matter seem to be. 

1. That swim is without the to, which is generally used with the infinitive ; and 

2. That can expresses an idea incomplete without swim, and is therefore a mere 
auxiliary. 

The reply to the first objection is that several words besides may, can, and 
the other so-called auxiliaries of the potential, such as bid, dare, let, are followed 
by the infinitive without to. If the omission of to is a sufficient reason for con- 
sidering can swim as one verb, dare swim should be regarded as one verb, dare 
being a mere auxiliary. 

To the second objection it may be replied that other verbs besides may, can, 
etc., express such an idea as demands the presence of the infinitive after them. 
Ought to swim, as well as dare swim, should therefore be considered as one verb. 

If the reasons for establishing the potential mood are well founded, this 
mood ought to be very greatly extended. 

The objection to this mood rests on the fact that may, can, etc., are not used 
as auxiliaries, but as principal verbs, having their own appropriate meaning. In 
the perfect tense, for instance, we have real auxiliaries; as, "I have written." 
Here have is not employed in the same sense that it has as a principal verb, and 
written is not used as a simple participle. From the juxtaposition of these two 
words arises an idea which is not merely the sum of those expressed by have 
and written (have -f written) ; as from the chemical union of two substances arises 
a tertium quid, or third substance, which is not either of the original substances 
nor the result of the addition of the two. But in can swim each word retains its 
proper meaning. 

NOTE L.— TIME AND ACTION. (Page 88.) 

It seems strange that things so unlike as the time and the action should ever 
have been confounded. Yet in a large number of the grammars in use we find 
incorrect views of the tenses arising from a confusion of these distinct things. 

'• The prior past tense," says one writer, " is the form of the verb that denotes 
past time, but as prior to some other past act specified." Here time and act are 
expressly represented as the same thing. 

The same confusion is found in the works of other writers, though not so 
fully expressed. " The present-perfect tense," says one, " denotes past time, and- 



308 APPENDIX. 

also conveys an allusion to the present; as, I have written." The writer of this, 
in the first place, mistook the past action for past time; then, feeling that present 
time is in some way indicated, and not seeing how the same tense can at once 
denote both past and present time, he felt obliged to represent the present as 
merely alluded to. What is meant by an allusion to the present ? 

Another writer who calls this tense the second past says, " This tense, in its 
ordinary use, includes no part of present time, although it refers to it. When we 
say, 'I have written a letter,' or 'I have read the book,' we never mean, in any 
sense, that we are now writing or reading. To call it therefore a present tense, as 
it is called by some (the present-perfect), is not only improper, but gives an erro- 
neous idea of the real nature of this division of time."— Pinneo's Grammar. 

It should seem that, in the view of this writer, action is time ; since his 
argument is that because the action is not now going on the time is not present. 
His argument would play havoc with his own present tense. Speaking of a 
person's occupation, we may say, " He writes in the clerk's office," though at the 
time of speaking he may be eating dinner. According to the argument against 
the present-perfect tense, writes is not in the present tense, as we do not mean 
that the person is now writing. 

In speaking of his second past tense this author says, " It may refer to the 
present day, or week, or century; as, ' I have written to-day, or this week, or this 
month.'" Now is no part of present time "included " in this day, this week, or 
this century ? If this week is not present, is it past or is it future $ This writer 
would say it is past ; for he says, " The second past tense denotes a past in such a 
way as to refer to the present." If this day is past, we must be living in to- 
morrow ; if this century is past, we must now be in the next ; if this week is 
past, next week must be present. So we see that grammarians as well as pugil- 
ists may knock their opponents "into the middle of next week." 

Those definitions which represent the verb as denoting time are incorrect. 
It is not time which the verb denotes, but action or state in time. In other words, 
the verb expresses action or state, and has one form for expressing action or 
state taking place in present time, another for expressing action or state taking 
place in past time, etc. 

NOTE M.— SECOND PEKSON SINGULAK. (Page 94.) 

Some writers of grammars, because the pronoun you is so generally used 
instead of thou, call you the pronoun of the second person singular, and in 
conjugating insert you love, etc., instead of thou lovest, etc., in the second person 
singular of the verb. 

If thou were an obsolete word, there would be some propriety in this course. 
But as thou is continually employed in the most important affairs of life— the 
offices of religion— and in all the higher kinds of poetry, it can scarcely be con- 
sidered obsolete or obsolescent. The form of the verb appropriate to thou should 
therefore retain its place in the paradigm. 

When the plural form you is used instead of the singular thou it should be 
considered the plural used for the singular, just as when the plural we is em- 
ployed for the singular I we is so regarded. It is true that you is used for thou 
more frequently than we is used for I; but this makes no difference in the prin- 
ciple. When you entirely supplants thou it may then take its place. But some 
time will probably elapse before we shall begin to say, "Hallowed be your 
name," "Your kingdom come." 

He who asserts that thou is " antiquated " must either have peculiar notions 
of the meaning of the word antiquated or he must have paid little attention to 
the higher literature of our language. Is that form obsolete which is heard 



SECOND PERSON SINGULAR. 309 

hundreds of times every week by all who attend religious services? Is that 
form obsolete which is the form that we find whenever we open a work of one 
of our great poets ? Is that form obsolete which we find in Shakespeare, Milton, 
Ben Jonson, Dryden, Pope, Young, Addison, Swift, Cowper, Thomson, Goldsmith, 
Gray, Johnson, Scott, Moore, Coleridge, Byron, Wordsworth, Campbell, Shelley, 
Keats, Bryant, Longfellow, Tennyson, Browning, Macaulay, Bulwer, and which 
continues to be used by the most modern of modern poets? We should be glad 
to see many good customs obsolete in the same way. 

The Germans, in polite conversation, use sie, they, instead of du, thou. Thus, 
in asking a person about the state of his health, they say, "Are they well?" 
instead of "Art thou well?" or "Are you well?" But they do not consider sie, 
they, as of the second person singular because it is employed instead of du, thou. 
The Italians say, " Is it well?" referring to a noun equivalent to your worship ; 
but they do not consider ella, it, as of the second person. 

Dr. Webster, who is followed by some inferior grammarians, goes so far as to 
assert the correctness of you was. He supports himself by two careless expres- 
sions in letters of Pope and Gay, four or five quotations from second-rate and 
third-rate writers, and a few from the report of a criminal trial, which is hardly 
the place to seek for models of style. The authority derived from the language 
of lawyers in addressing witnesses will scarcely outweigh that derived from the 
usage of Milton, Addison, Goldsmith, Johnson, Irving, and the other English 
classics. 

The form you was changes not only the number but the person. Dr. Webster 
says, " The verb must follow its nominative. If that denotes unity, so does the 
verb." To establish the correctness of you icas, his proposition should have 
been as follows : " The verb must follow its nominative. If that denotes unity, 
so does the verb ; and to denote unity a pronoun of the second person requires 
a verb to be of the third person as well as in the singular number." The number 
only being changed, the form would be you wast, not you was. If we are to say 
you was, we should also say you is and you has. These last forms, besides their 
analogy to you was, have the authority of usage to support them ; for they are 
used by several millions of people in this country. If this is not authority suf- 
ficient to cause them to be regarded " as established by national usage," what 
shall we say of the authority derived from the careless language which lawyers 
may have sometimes employed in the examination of witnesses, and which at 
the close of the examination they would probably have denied that they had 
used ? * 

Dr. Webster had his whims about etymology and syntax as well as about 
orthography and orthoepy. Some of these whims were so peculiar that public 
opinion has compelled the editors of his Dictionary to reject them. For instance, 
he contended very earnestly that oxide should be spelled oxyd. In the latest 
edition of Webster's Dictionary this spelling is abandoned, and good reasons are 
given. Under the word you, in the same edition, we find the following: "You 
is properly the plural of the second personal pronoun, but is in all ordinary 
discourse used also in addressing a single person, yet always properly combined 
with a plural verb.' ' 

A recent writer on grammar says, " In common conversation and by the 
practical class, was, in the singular, is almost always used, and among the more 
highly educated the tendency to this use is greatly increasing."— Pinneo's Gram- 
mar, page 89. If any unfortunate pupil should be led by this statement to the 

-"Considerable pains are taken to show the impropriety of between you and I 
and you was— the two phrases the most certain to crop out of the speech of half- 
bred persons."— Round- Table. 



310 APPENDIX. 

use of you was, he would soon find himself suffering the penalty of misplaced 
confidence* 

Some persons seem to have great difficulty in seeing the difference between 
signification and form. No one contends that you always denotes more than 
one ; as no one contends that we always denotes more than one, or that the 
German sie always refers to several persons spoken of. The question is simply 
about form. If you is not plural in form, let us say you art; even if we should 
not follow the analogy of you was, and say you is. And, according to the same 
principle, let the editor of the newspaper when he means only himself say we 
am or we is. We shall then have every thing, as Tony Lumpkin's friend expresses 
it, " in a concatenation accordingly." 

NOTE N.— GKAMMATICAL PKEDICATE. (Page 160.) 

The idea advanced in "Butler's Practical Grammar" that the grammatical 
predicate is always the verb alone was so entirely new that many felt strong 
objections to adopting it. Such persons thought that what had been hitherto 
taught in all the grammars about the verb be, that it is merely a copula uniting 
the subject and the predicate, must be true. Some years after tjtie publication 
of " Butler's Practical Grammar " Mr. Mulligan, in his philosophical " Exposition 
of the Grammatical Structure of the English Language," maintained that "the 
verb to be has, grammatically considered, no function that distinguishes it from 
other verbs," giving unanswerable arguments in support of his position; but 
grammarians still pursue the old track, still make the absurd statement that 
" horses run " means the same as " horses are running." f 

The common doctrine is thus presented in one of the newer grammars: 
"The subject of a proposition is that of which something is affirmed." "The 
predicate of a proposition is that which is affirmed of the subject." " The copula 
is a word or group of words used to affirm or assert the predicate of the sub- 
ject." " The copula is not an element ; it is used merely to affirm the predicate 
of the subject." "'Apples are ripe.' Apples is the subject; it is that of which 
something is affirmed : ripe is the predicate ; it is that which is affirmed of the 
subject; are is the copula." "'Time is precious.' Precious is the predicate; it 
is that which is affirmed of the subject." % " ' Gold is a metal.' Is is the copula, 
and metal the predicate." " ' I am in haste.' In haste is the grammatical predi- 
cate ; am is the copula." — Harvey's English Grammar, p. 124, etc. 

"This opinion," says Mr. Mulligan, "of a peculiar grammatical function per- 
taining to the verb expressive of existence, though almost universally admitted 
since the days of Aristotle, we think, will appear, on careful examination, desti- 
tute of a solid foundation. And so long as it is maintained, it stands, as it seems 
to us, a serious obstacle in the way of those who attempt a lucid and consistent 
analysis of language." In the proposition, " The steward is faithful," he says 

*One writer, after giving you was in his paradigm, says with the utmost 
coolness, not a smile visible on the face of him, "Some good writers use the 
plural form (were) in addressing one person." — Clark's English Grammar,^. VIA. 
To this he might have added that some good writers use the forms I am and he is, 
not lis and he am. 

f Though all the horses in the world were fast asleep, we might say, " Horses 
run ;" but we could not say " Horses are running " unless at the very time some 
horses should be in the act of running. 

I The subject is a word or a combination of words; it denotes, not is, that of 
which something is affirmed. The predicate is not affirmed of the subject, the 
word, but of what is denoted by the subject. "John is careless." Here is careless 
is not affirmed.of the word John, but of the person. 



GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 311 

that being faithful is asserted, and not simply faithful, u as the logicians and 
grammarians generally have inadvertently maintained." In a note he says, 
" The doctrine in regard to the verb to be, presented above, may seem novel to 
some of our readers, who have been taught to consider this verb as expressing 
the naked copula. We were taught so to consider it, and never doubted till 
recently the soundness of the ancient and common doctrine in reference to this 
subject. We had written a large part of a treatise on grammatical analysis in 
conformity with the common view of this matter. In the progress of the work 
we encountered difficulties which we could not surmount, inconsistencies which 
we could not reconcile, whilst we adhered to the current opinion entertained of 
the verb to be. Though the distinction stated above and the innovation proposed 
in the manner of analyzing propositions may appear of small moment to a 
superficial observer, we are assured that it will not so appear to intelligent and 
well-informed grammarians. Such will anticipate that very important changes 
in the mode of conducting grammatical analysis will necessarily follow from 
this new view of the so-called substantive verb. And they will readily trace these 
changes in other parts of this treatise. We appeal to the judgment of our read- 
ers, as we have heretofore appealed to the judgment of others in conversation, 
without ever failing of obtaining a verdict in favor of our view of the matter, 
when fully and plainly stated. We put to them the following simple question ; 
their answer will decide whether they hold to the old doctrine or agree with 
our views : In the proposition, ' The steward is faithful,' is it simply fa ithful that is 
asserted of the steward, or is it being faithful that is asserted of him? If the 
latter, as we maintain, and as all to whom we have presented the subject, after 
deliberation have admitted ; then the verb is {grammatically considered) differs in 
no respect from other intransitive verbs. It may be modified by the same kind 
of complements as other neuter verbs, and by no kind of complement different 
from those which some of them admit. The analysis of the propositions in which 
it is used as the assertive word presents, under this view, no peculiarity." 

Present to any company of intelligent persons the proposition " Horses are 
animals," and ask them whether what is asserted of horses is animals or being 
animals, and they will all say that it is being animals that is asserted. "John lives 
in Mobile." What is asserted of John? Living in Mobile. "John is in Mobile." 
What is here asserted of John ? Being in Mobile. The being is asserted in the 
second proposition as strongly as the living is asserted in the first. In gram- 
matical character there is no difference whatever between lives and is. In " He 
grows wise " what is asserted ? Growing wise. In " He looks wise "? Looking wise. 
In " He is wise "? Being wise. In " She loo ks pale "? Looking pale. In" She turns 
pale "? Turning pale. In " She is pale "? Being pale. What is asserted in " They 
die happy," " They live happy," " They seem happy," " They are happy "? In " He 
stands there," " He lies there," " He walks there," " He is there "? It is easy to see 
that the verb be expresses its meaning just as other verbs express their meaning. 
When Lady Macbeth says to her husband, "Look like the innocent flower, but be 
the serpent under it," is be a mere copula? When Hamlet says to his mother, 
"Seems, madam! nay, it is; I know not seems," is the emphatic is nothing but a 
copula ? 

"He stands there;" "He stood there." A change in the form of the verb 
expresses a change in the time of standing there. "He is there;" "He icas 
there." A change in the form of the verb expresses a change in the time of 
being there. If the verb be is nothing but a copula, what is it that is past in " He 
was there"? 

Even if it should be admitted that be does not express being, this verb would 
form the grammatical predicate. "I am in haste." In what sense of the word 
can in Iiaste be regarded as the grammatical predicate ? So far as the grammatical 



312 APPENDIX. 

relation between the subject and the predicate is concerned, I am is as complete 
as I run, I see, I jump, or I fly. I am contains the subject I and the verb am 
agreeing with I in number and person. This is complete so far as grammar is 
concerned. In haste has not the slightest grammatical connection with I, what- 
ever may be regarded as the- meaning of am. 



NOTE O.— "IS+BEING BUILT." (Page 233.) 

Dr. Fitzedward Hall, a Sanskrit scholar, who, if we may judge from his 
style, is very much dissatisfied with classical English generally, defends is being 
built by taking the ground that it is composed of is+being built, not of is being+ 
built, and he thinks this analysis removes every objection. " If Mr. White," says 
he, i( had hit upon the right participle, I suspect his chapter on Is Being Done 
would have been much shorter than it is, and very different."— Modern English, 
p. 339. Now, being expresses in the participial form what is expresses in the 
indicative form, and, as is built means is in the state expressed by built, being 
built must mean being in the state expressed by built. If " the house is built" 
means that the house is completed, " the house being built" must mean that 
the house is completed ; and this is the sense in which such expressions are 
used. "That house being finished, the workmen have begun the other." If is 
being finished means is -j- being finished, it can not mean not finished, as Dr. Hall 
wishes it to mean. 

What Dr. Hall's skill in criticism is may be inferred from the following pas- 
sage : "What is there in Latin — which helplessly leaves it doubtful whether 
amor is to mean ' I am loved,' or ' I am being loved '—to suggest is being doneV 
If is being done were an established form in the language, the form would not be 
proper in such verbs as love. (See Remark 1, p. 102 of this Grammar.) As Dr. 
Hall's imperfect passive " The house is being built " implies that the house is not 
yet built, so "She is being loved " would imply that she is not yet loved, but 
only on the way to that state. 



